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The  Rescue. 


FIRE  INSURANCE 
INSPECTION  AND  UNDERWRITING 

An  Encyclopedic  Handbook  Defining  Insurance 

Terms    and    Describing    Processes    and 

Materials    Used    in    Mercantile  and 

Manufacturing  Establishments, 

and    Their    Fire    Hazards 

By 

CHARLES  C.  DOMINGE 

Author  of  First  Illustrated  Book  of  Schedule  Rating 
and 

WALTER  O.  LINCOLN 

Members  National  Fire  Protection  Association 


Price  15.00 


THE  SPECTATOR  COMPANY 

Chicago  Office  135  William  Street 

Insurance  Exchange  NEW  YORK. 


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ii^vpiawu  i 


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COPYRIGHT,  1918,  BY 

THE  SPECTATOR  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


PREFACE 

Fire  insurance  literature  is  surfeited  with  technical  nomen- 
clature, therefore  we  have  tried  to  follow  the  advice  of  Rus- 
kin  who  said,  "The  greatest  thing  any  living  soul  can  do  is 
to  see  something  clearly  and  tell  it  plainly." 

In  the  last  decade  there  have  been  more  books  written  on 
the  subject  of  insurance  than  at  any  time  since  insurance  has 
been  looked  upon  as  a  scientific  problem.  Most  of  the  writ- 
ings have  been  from  the  pens  of  men  of  long  experience  who 
realized  the  necessity  of  committing  to  print  their  valuable 
experiences  for  the  benefit  of  the  profession.  These  works 
have  been  in  the  main  of  a  highly  technical  character  de- 
signed for  the  use  of  experienced  men,  or  at  least  for  those 
who  have  been  engaged  in  the  profession  for  some  time  and 
to  whom  was  denied  the  opportunity  of  getting  the  informa- 
tion at  first  hand.  There  are  numerous  admirable  text  books 
on  any  particular  subject,  but  so  written  that  only  those  who 
have  had  some  experience  in  the  insurance  business  can  fully 
comprehend  the  terms  and  expressions  that  are  in  the 
writings. 

As  far  as  we  know,  there  is  no  one  book  which  can  be 
called  a  ''primer"  for  the  guidance  of  those  entering  our 
business  and  who,  from  their  inability  to  secure  the  prac- 
tical elementary  books  for  study,  are  handicapped  at  the  start 
of  their  career,  and  must  needs  spend  many  years  of  close 
application  before  their  advancement  really  begins.  It  is  for 
the  benefit,  primarily,  of  the  young  student  who  seeks  the 
rudimentary  education,  and  to  save  the  needless  expenditure 
of  time  at  the  start,  which  has  been  the  lot  of  most  insur- 
ance men,  that  this  book  is  presented.  Our  aim  is  to  make 
this  volume  a  "ready  reference  handbook"  for  general  use 
of  underwriters,  inspectors,  examiners,  map  clerks,  counter- 
men,  storage   clerks,   schedule   men,   and   others. 

In  inspection  work  particularly,  the  beginner  is  at  a  dis- 

396653 


PREFACE 

advantage  in  not  knowing  the  names  and  purposes  of  the 
various  machines  used,  or  the  usual  materials  or  processes 
of  any  particular  manufacture  and  is  therefore  unable  to  give 
a  "word  picture"   in   his   report. 

The  authors  have  endeavored  to  present  features  which 
may  be  overlooked  or  forgotten  by  the  experienced  man,  and 
as  far  as  possible  have  avoided  technicalities.  The  chemical 
terms  mentioned  are  merely  from  a  fire  insurance  standpoint, 
so  as  to  aid  in  determining  whether  or  not  a  certain  material 
is  hazardous.  The  brevity  of  some  of  the  subjects  is  due  to 
the  desire  to  cite  only  the  necessary  data,  with  the  thought 
in  mind  that  any  reader  interested  in  any  particular  subject 
can  secure  more  detailed  information  from  books  on  the 
shelves  of  insurance  libraries.  At  the  present  time  there  are 
very  few  manufacturing  processes  about  which  nothing  has 
been  written. 

While  strictly  a  fire  insurance  work,  this  book  is  intended 
also  for  use  of  members  of  fire  departments,  fire  prevention 
bureaus,  warehousemen,  fire  marshals,  factory  engineers  and 
others  employed  in  the  conservation  of  life  and  property. 

Grateful  acknowledgement  is  hereby  given  to  all  those  who 
have  assisted  us  in  writing  this  volume,  especially  Messrs. 
Charles  E.  Jahne,  Sinclair  T.  Skirrow,  William  J.  Tallamy, 
Thomas  O.  Gildersleeve,  William  Slavik  and  Walter  Bladen. 

The  authors  would  appreciate  being  advised  of  any  needed 
corrections  so  that  changes  may  be  made  in  future  editions, 

C.  C.  D. 
W.  O.  L. 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

(Mostly  Drawn  by  the  Authors) 

The   Rescue    Frontispiece 

Reviewing  Building  Plans 22 

Steel  Theater  Curtain 25 

Benzine  and  Gasolene  Safety  Cans 41 

Shavings  Vault  and  Blower  System 46-47 

Brew  House '.  55 

Brewery  Cold  Storage  House 57 

Chimney  Construction 84 

Communication  Openings 101 

Invisible  Heat  (Conflagration  Hazard) 105 

Dry  Room  134 

Preventing  Drafts  in   Case  of  Fire 136 

Furring ^ 160 

Fire  Loss  Per  Capita   (Diagram) 173 

Comparative  Fire  Losses  by  Countries 174 

Floor  Openings  .......  >^ .  ^\ 194 

A  Friendly  Fire  . . .  v>C^'.^?v  ■ 205 

Gas  Stoves 221 

Brewery  Malt  and  Kiln  House  290 

A  Prolific  Source  of  Fire  Losses 293 

Roof  Space  Openings 329 

Cooking  Ranges 371 

Roof  Spaces  in  Frame  Rows 383 

Furnace  Feeder   398 

Safety  Waste  Cans 416 

Sprinkler  Extinguishing  Fire 417 

Sprinkler  Head  in  Operation 419 

Sprinkler  Supervisory  System 434-435 

Starch  Buck 440 

Protection  to  Steel  and  Iron  Work ." 443 

Model  Theater  (Section) 464 

Ventilating  and  Light  Shafts 486 

Finis •••••..  51} 


'^Preventable  fire  is  more  than  a  private  mis- 
fortune. It  is  a  public  dereliction.  At  a  time 
like  this  of  emergency  and  of  manifest  necessity 
for  the  conservation  of  national  resources,  it  is 
more  than  ever  a  matter  of  deep  and  pressing 
consequence  that  every  means  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  this  evil.'* 


I^w^ 


FIRE  INSURANCE 
INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


ABACA  is  Manila  hemp. 

ABANDONMENT  CLAUSE— The  standard  policy  states 
that  there  shall  be  no  abandonment,  i.  e.,  instead  of  the  prop- 
erty owner  turning  over  what  is  left  in  the  way  of  salvage 
to  the  company  and  demanding  a  full  payment  of  the  policy, 
he  Is  obliged  to  take  care  of  all  damaged  property  and  pro- 
tect It  from  further  damage  to  the  best  of  his  ability  until 
an  adjustment  of  the  loss  has  been  made. 

ABATTOIR  OR  SLAUGHTERING-HOUSE— Usually  a 
nuisance  to  neighborhood  unless  located  In  outlying  district. 
The  majority  are  large  area,  frame.  Note  if  coal  stove  heat 
in  office  or  lounging  room;  refrigerating;  casing  making. 
Casings  for  sausage  are  made  from  entrails,  cooked,  cleaned 
and  dried,  and  require  a  boiler  for  steam  kettles. 

ABRASIVE  CUTTING  Is  performed  by  means  of  stones, 
sand,  emery  dust,  glass,  carborundum  and  In  some  cases  by 
soft,  friable  Iron  alone. 

ABSORPTION   SYSTEMS— See   Refrigeration. 

ACADEMIES  OR  COLLEGES— Usually  of  very  large 
area  with  unprotected  floor  openings  including  well  holes, 
the  individual  rooms  enclosed  In  lath  and  plaster  partitions 
with  sash  doors.  Common  hazards  are  those  of  schools,  i.  e., 
heating,  lighting,  laundries,  manual-training  class  rooms, 
kitchens,  pranks  of  students,  repair  shops.  The  moral  hazard 
Is  that  of  private  ownership,  unprofitableness  from  poor  se- 
lection of  location,  inaccessibility,  lack  of  transit  facilities. 
(See  School  Hazards.) 

ACCESSIBILITY — In  reporting  out-of-town  risks,  it  is 
necessary  to  state  whether  the  property  can  be  easily  reached 


8  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

by  fire  department  and  the  distance  to  nearest  company,  the 
distance  to  nearest  fire  hydrant  and  alarm  box,  the  condi- 
tion of  roads  whether  dirt,  stone  or  other  pavements,  grade 
of  road,  average  hydrant  pressure,  open  bridges  or  other 
handicaps  which  bear  on  the  chances  of  salvage.  See  Pro- 
tected Risks;  see  Remote  Risks. 

ACCOMMODATION  LINE— A  line  of  insurance  taken  by 
a  company  on  a  poor  risk  to  accommodate  a  broker  whose 
volume  of  busines^  warrants  the  acceptance  of  an  occasional 
undesirable  risk.  This  practice  has  been  very  much  abused. 
Brokers  who  have  no  prestige  and  very  little  "good"  business, 
are  at  times  hard  pressed  or  unable  to  properly  cover  risks 
whose  insurance  they  have  solicited,  and  therefore  "peddle" 
the  business  out  to  large  brokers  on  a  percentage  basis. 
See  Underwriting. 

ACCRUED  CHARGES— This  insurance  is  to  recompense 
the  warehouseman  for  charges  which  have  accrued  on  goods 
left  in  his  charge. 

ACETATE  OF  ETHYL— Is  a  clear,  colorless,  volatile 
liquid  of  fragrant  odor  used  in  medicine  and  flavoring.  Very 
inflammable.     Flash  point  about  40  degrees  F. 

ACETATE  OF  METHYL— Is  a  clear  colorless  liquid. 
Highly  inflammable.     Flash  point  about  35  degrees  F. 

ACETATE — A  salt  formed  by  the  union  of  acetic  acid 
with  a  base. 

ACETENE— Highly  combustible  gas. 

ACETIC  ACID — A  colorless  liquid  obtained  from  the  dry 
distillation  of  wood  or  from  the  oxidation  of  alcohol.  Used 
in  the  manufacture  of  dye  stuffs,  coal  tar  products  and  vari- 
ous manufacturing  processes.     Not  inflammable. 

ACETIC  ETHYL— Same  as  acetate  of  ethyl. 

ACETONE — A  colorless  liquid  consisting  of  3  parts  car- 
bon, 3  parts  hydrogen,  1  part  oxygen.  Obtained  by  dry  dis- 
tillation of  wood.  Used  as  solvent  for  nitro-cellulose  in  pro- 
duction of  lacquer,  and  celluloid  cement.  Highly  inflamma- 
ble.    Flash  point  about  35  degrees  F.     (See  volatile  solvents.) 

ACETYL  CELLULOSE— Made  from  cellulose  and  acetic 
anhydride.  Analagous  to  nitro-cellulose.  Used  same  as  cel- 
luloid.    Not  inflammable. 


ACETYLENE  GAS  GENERATORS  <  9 

ACETYLENE— A  farm  of  illuminating  gas  formed  by  the 
action  of  calcium  carbide  and  water,  in  which  action  the  lime 
leaves  the  carbon  with  the  production  of  considerable  heat 
and  becomes  slaked  lime,  while  the  carbon  unites  with  the 
hydrogen  and  becomes  acetylene.  There  is  12  times  as  much 
carbon  as  hydrogen  in  it.  Inflammable.  See  Calcium  Car- 
bide. 

ACETYLENE  GAS  GENERATORS— Should  be  located 
outside  of  insured  buildings  and  not  within  five  feet  of  any 
opening  thereto,  nor  should  they  be  opened  toward  any  ad- 
jacent building,  arLd  must  be  kept  under  lock  and  key.  The 
dimensions  of  the  generator  house  to  be  no  greater  than  the 
apparatus  requires  to  allow  convenient  room  for  recharging 
and  inspection  of  parts.  The  house  to  be  thoroughly  venti- 
lated and  any  artificial  heating  necessary  to  prevent  freezing, 
shall  be  steam  or  hot  water  systems.  Generator  houses  not 
to  be  used  for  the  storage  of  calcium  carbide  except  that 
contained  in  the  generator. 

ACIDS  should  be  kept  well  apart  from  other  chemicals  and 
in  many  cases  from  each  other.  Fires  are  best  fought  with 
water  as  organic  substances  will  only  feed  the  fire.  Sand 
and  earth  are  not  recommended  for  extinguishment. 

ACID  WORKS  (Hydrochloric  or  Muriatic)— Note  the 
construction  and  arrangement  of  roasters  and  furnaces,  glau- 
ber  salts  dryers  and  nitric  retorts;  arrangement  and  method 
of  storing  nitre  and  nitre  bags;  condensers;  condition  of 
pyrites  burners,  glovers  tower  and  Guy-Lusac  tower;  the 
stills,  mills  for  grinding  nitre  cakes,  the  elevator  boot  and 
legs,  the  shafting,  sulphur  storage,  reclaiming  lead  pans,  seal- 
ing and  packing  of  carboys. 

ACTORS — Lines  on  household  furniture  are  not  very  at- 
tractive, unless  the  applicant  is  personally  known  to  the 
broker  as  reliable  and  at  the  ''top  of  the  ladder"  in  his  pro- 
fession. The  value  is  mainly  personal  effects  and  wearing 
apparel  which  must  be  constantly  renewed.  **tO  keep  in  style." 
As  this  becomes  out-of-date,  the  moral  hazard  becomes  per- 
tinent.    See  Furnished  Rooms. 

ADJACENT— Near  but  not  adjoining. 


10  INSPECTION  AND   UNDERWRITING 

ADJOINING — Buildings  are  adjoining  when  they  are 
built  against  each  other. 

ADJUSTER — Merchandise  losses  present  many  angles  to 
the  adjuster;  they  may  be  partial  or  total;  there  may  be  loss 
by  smoke  to  cast  iron  presses,  or  water  damage  to  a  water- 
pump  intended  for  pumping  water  out  of  a  mine.  Such  claims 
have  been  made  and,  unfortunately  for  the  credit  of  the  pro- 
fession, have  been  allowed.  Claims  for  smoke  damage  to 
cigars  in  air-tight  tin  cans  covered  with  wood,  because  of  fire 
2  or  3  doors  away  have  also  been  allowed;  claims  for  smoke 
damage  to  various  classes  of  stocks  because  of  fire  next  door 
or  in  the  next  block  are  so  common  that  the  merchant  who 
does  not  make  a  claim  for  smoke  damage  when  there  is  a 
fire  anywhere  in  his  neighborhood  is  looked  upon  by  under- 
writers as  an  oasis  in  the  desert.  Allowing  loss  on  property 
that  does  not  show  damage,  and  that  is  not  damaged  indi- 
cates weakness  in  the  adjuster,  sometimes  manifested  in  order 
to  get  business,  but  more  times  because  he  has  not  the  back- 
bone to  be  fair  to  the  insured  and  to  the  company,  or  because 
he  does  not  take  pains  to  place  the  so-called  damaged  prop- 
erty before  the  insured  and  insist  upon  the  damage  thereon 
being  shown.  The  adjuster  must  hail  from  the  state  where 
"Show  Me"  is  the  slogan;  the  adjuster  should  be  ignorant 
and  helpless;  ignorant  on  values  until  shown,  and  helpless 
because  he  is  compelled  to  follow  the  contract  made  by  the 
company  and  the  claimant.  Probably  not  over  one  loss  in 
fifty  on  merchandise  comes  under  the  heading  of  a  book  loss; 
the  other  forty-nine  are  damage  or  damage-claimed  losses, 
to  be  closed  by  examination  of  the  property  and  agreement 
on  appraisement  of  the  amount  of  loss  thereon.  In  all  cases 
where  the  total  loss  on  goods  does  not  exceed,  say  10 
to  15  per  cent  of  the  stock,  taking  the  claimant's  ver- 
bal statement  of  the  amount  of  and  class  of  goods  in  the 
part  of  the  building  where  the  fire  occurred,  verifying  his 
story  by  the  debris,  agreeing  on  the  amount  of  loss  on  the 
total  loss  to  the  stock,  and  then  fixing  the  loss  on  the  dam- 
aged goods  by  agreement  or  appraisal,  is  safer  than  settling 
by  the  books.  Where  the  loss  must  be  adjusted  by  the  books, 
the  inventory  should  be  verified  by  the  previous  year's  books 


AEROPLANE  MANUFACTURING  11 

in  order  to  detect  any  case  of  double  entry  or  purchases 
charged  twice,  or  stuffing  the  inventory.  This  applies  par- 
ticularly to  branch  stores,  or  to  stores  doing  a  losing  busi- 
ness, where  stuffing  the  inventory  might  be  necessary  to 
maintain  the  character  of  the  branch  manager  or  the  credit  of 
the  concern.  The  net  inventory,  the  purchases  at  net  in- 
voice, the  per  cent  of  freight  on  net  invoice,  makes  up  the 
total  to  be  accounted  for  at  invoice  and  freight.  The  safe 
cash  and  credit;  the  per  cent  of  profit  over  invoice  cost,  and 
all  other  transactions  as  noted  in  the  statement  of  loss  should 
be  ascertained  and  agreed  on  in  writing  by  the  adjuster  and 
the  claimant  before  proceeding  to  find  the  net  cost.  Proofs 
should  not  be  made  up  for  the  total  loss  if  there  be  any  pend- 
ing unsettled  questions,  as  a  claim  for  total  loss  can  be  ad- 
mitted at  any  time.  The  adjuster's  certificate  on  the  proof 
as  to  the  amount  of  and  honesty  of  the  loss  should  be  dis- 
pensed with,  as  it  is  a  bad  feature  if  the  claim  be  contested 
because  of  acts  or  facts  ascertained  after  the  adjustment. 
When  the  loss  to  the  property  is  fixed,  ownership,  names  of 
owners,  chattel  mortgages,  gasoline  and  other  factors  that 
might  throw  more  light  on  the  loss  should  be  inquired  into 
and  reported  with  proof,  but  in  cases  where  the  policy  is 
voided  by  acts  of  the  insured  or  others,  and  admitted  by  him, 
the  inquiry  must  stop. — Fireman's  Fund  Record. 

See  Valuation  of  Buildings,  also  Loss  Adjustment;  see 
Proof  of  Loss. 

ADMIRALTY  METAL  is  an  alloy  of  copper,  zinc  and  tin. 
Used  in  engine  making. 

ADVERTISING  CONCERNS— Mild  hazard,  consisting  of 
artist's  rooms  where  designs  are  drawn  or  painted,  tube  colors 
being  generally  in  use.  Storage  of  plates  and  cuts  (some  very 
expensive),  patterns  and  mailing  records.  The  latter  may 
form  considerable  of  the  value,  and  should  be  kept  in  dupli- 
cate or  in  fire-proof  cabinet. 

ADVERTISING  MATTER— Lines  should  be  written  cau- 
tiously.    Stock  may  be  obsolete;  very  susceptible. 

ADVERTISING  NOVELTIES  consist  of  cheap  jewelry, 
paper,  metal  or  wood  boxes,  leather  and  celluloid  goods. 

AEROPLANE  MANUFACTURING    consists    of    power 


12  INSPECTION  AND   UNDERWRITING 

woodworking,  gluing,  metal  working,  wiring  wood  parts  to- 
gether, covering  planes  and  rudders  with  linen,  varnishing 
wood  parts  and  propellers,  coating  fabrics  with  lacquer  hav- 
ing a  cellulose  base.  Main  hazards  are  storage  and  use  of 
large  quantities  of  lacquer,  woodworking,  testing  gasoline 
motors,  glue  melting.  Usually  located  in  old  buildings,  large 
open  areas  subjecting  whole  plant  to  one  fire,  and  contents 
very  susceptible.  A  small  amount  of  heat  will  render  a  ma- 
chine valueless  account  of  removing  temper  of  guy  wires, 
braces  and  weakening  framework  and  structure. 

Dopes  for  Airplanes — Two  classes  of  "dope"  are  now  in 
use,  and  the  first  class,  comprising  varnishes,  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  solution  of  cellulose  nitrate  or  pyroxylin,  the  sec- 
ond class  comprising  the  varnishes  made  by  dissolving  cellu- 
lose acetate.  According  to  a  paper  presented  by  Gustavue 
J,  Esselen,  Jr.,  before  the  Northeast  Section  of  the  American 
Chemical   Society. 

The  great  outstanding  difference  between  the  coatings  given 
by  cellulose  acetate  and  cellulose  nitrate  dopes  is  the  in- 
flammability of  the  latter,  a  difference  which  will  probably 
be  emphasized  more  and  more  as  the  use  of  airplanes  for 
peaceful  purposes  increases.  Cellulose  acetate  dopes  leave  a 
non-inflammable  finish.  The  relative  behavior  of  the  coat- 
ings left  by  the  two  types  of  dope  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
fact  that  some  "gasoline  can  be  poured  on  the  piece  of  fabric 
coated  with  a  good  cellulose  acetate  dope  and  allowed  to 
burn,  and  the  fabric  does  not  ignite.  The  same  test  applied 
to  a  pyroxlin-coated  cloth  results  in  the  immediate  ignition 
of  the  coating,  and  in  the  very  short  space  of  time  there  is 
nothing  left  of  the  fabric  or  coating  but  a  puff  of  smoke. 

AFFIDAVIT  RISK— A  risk  on  which  the  licensed  com- 
panies have  all  the  insurance  they  care  to  write,  therefore 
it  is  necessary  to  secure  insurance  from  unlicensed  com- 
panies,  through   brokers   specially   licensed   for   that   purpose. 

AFFINITY  OF  CHEMICALS— The  phrase  chemical  at- 
traction is  sometimes  used  to  denote  affinity.  It  signifies  a 
tendency  of  different  kinds  of  matter  to  unite  with  each  other. 

AFRICAN  BLACK  WOOD— A  species  of  hard  wood  ex- 
tensively used  in  making  clarinets  and  fifes.- 


AFTER  DAMP  (choke  damp)  mixture  is  carbon  anhy- 
dride and  nitrogen  resulting  from  explosion  of  fire  damp. 

AGAVA — A  libre,  native  of  Mexico,  called  "patent  hair,"  a 
substitute  for  horse  hair. 

AGENT' — The  authorized  representative  of  a  company  with 
power  to  commit  a  company  to  liability,  make  endorsements, 
collect  premiums,  sign  policies  and  other  similar  duties.  Re- 
ceives an  over-writing  commission  above  the  usual  broker-' 
age.     May  solicit  insurance   as   a  broker.     See   Broker.       '''* 

AGITATOR — A  paddle  or  similar  contrivance  used  to  stir 
or  mix  material  in  a  kettle  or  tank  while  in  process  of  man- 
ufacture. -^    wiOHO^^i:-. 

AIR-BRUSH — A  sprayer  operated  under  air  pVes^iir^  for 
spraying  liquids. 

AIR  COMPRESSOR — An  air  pump  worked  under  power 
for  delivering  air  under  pressure  for  various  purposes. 

AIR  SPACE — The  intervention  of  an  air  space  preventing 
direct  contact  of  combustible  material  with  the  heated  body 
is  essential.  This  prevents  the  combustible  material  attain- 
ing a  dangerous  temperature.  One  of  the  best  known  in- 
sulators for  either  heat  or  cold. 

AISLES — Should  be  maintained  in  all  warehouses  or  risks 
where  bulk  stock  is  kept  to  allow  of  easy  access  to  all  parts 
of  the  floor  in  case  of  fire,  and  at  windows  so  that  a  passer- 
by could  see  the  interior  and  so  detect  fire  and  also  allow 
firemen  to  enter  building.  Aisles  should  be  2  to  4  feet  wide. 
See  Clear  Space. 

ALARM,  AUTOMATIC— A  thermostat  placed  on  ceilings, 
spaced  about  10  feet.  Heat  expands  a  diaphragm  which 
causes  an  electrical  circuit  to  send  in  an  alarm  to  a  central 
station.      See   Central   Stations. 

ALARM,  THERMOSTATIC— Alarms  consist  in  brief  of 
two  plates  which  are  sensitized  to  heat,  or  a  thermostatic 
strip  between  two  plates.  A  rise  in  temperature  forces  the 
plates  together,  causing  an  electrical  circuit  which  transmits 
the'  alarm.  See  Fire  Alarm  System;  also  Combination  Red 
Fire  Alarm  Box. 

ALARM  VALVE — Usually  a  part  of  a  sprinkler  system  so 
designed  that  when  water  flows  through  the  sprinkler  pipti 


14  INSI^ECTION  AND  UNDERWRITING 

an  alarm  is  transmitted  to  a  central  station  or  to  the  engine 
room  in  the  building.     See  Variable  Pressure  Alarm  Valve. 

ALCOHOL  (ethyl  or  grain)— Distilled  from  grain.  Flash 
point  about  61  degrees  F.  Denatured  alcohol,  flash  point 
about  55  degrees  F.  Methyl  alcohol,  inflammable,  distilled 
from  wood,  flash  point  about  60  degrees  F.  Wood  alcohol 
distilled  from  sawdust  or  wood  particles.  Flash  point  about 
35  to  50  degrees  F.  Alcohols  of  different  strengths  give,  off 
inflammable  vapors  at  different  temperatures.  Alcohol  burns 
with  a  pale  blue  flame  because  it  is  very  rich  in  carbon.  Can 
be  extinguished  with  water.     See  Wood  Alcohol. 

ALCOHOL  DISTILLERIES— Distilling  from  high  wines 
and  juices  of  fruits  or  grains.  Setting  of,  and  ventilation  of 
furnaces  important.  Stills  to  have  plenty  of  ventilation.  Stor- 
age to  be  in  separate  building. 

ALCOHOL  RECLAIMING— Used  alcohol  placed  in 
steam  heated  mixing-tank  with  agitator,  treated  with  fresh 
alcohol  and  other  ingredients  and  then  distilled  in  steam  ket- 
tles, the.  alcohol  passing  through  various  water-cooled  recti- 
fiers and  then  put  in  drums.  Distilling  apparatus  should  be 
in  well-ventilated  buildings. 

ALCOHOL  (Solidified)  is  now  put  up  in  cube  form 
for  cooking  and  heating.  It  can  be  used  on  a  sheet  of  metal 
or  asbestos  without  a  burner. 

ALDEHYDES — Derived  from  sulphuric  acid,  alcohol  and 
bichromate  of  potash.  Volatile  and  inflammable.  It  is  the 
intermediate  product  in  the  oxidation  of  an  alcohol  to  an  acid. 

ALIEN — See  Enemy  Alien  Clause. 

ALIGNUM  FIRE  DOORS  are  a  composition  of  raw 
ground  asbestos  mixed  with  silicate  of  soda  and  placed  be- 
tween two  sheet  metal  plates  greased  with  paraffin  to  pre- 
vent adherence.  Wood  strips  about  2  inches  square  are 
used  to  form  the  shape.  Material  is  then  placed  in  a  hydrau- 
lic steam  press  to  compress  the  substance,  and  the  heat  drives 
t.he  moisture  out.  Wire  mesh  or  screens  are  sometimes 
placed  in  the  mixture.  Doors  may  or  may  not  be  metal  cov- 
ered. The  only  woodworking  is  the  occasional  cutting  and 
planing  of  wood  strips  to  size.  Class  may  be  likened  to  a 
general  metal  worker  but  susceptibility  not  so  great.     Mild 


AtMg  H0US£^S  15 

painting  hazard.  Sometimes  use  small  quantities  of  zapon 
for  giving  a  finished  surface.  Zapon  is  a  highly  inflammable 
lacquer  with  a  cellulose  base. 

ALKALI — A  substance  capable  of  combining  with  and 
thereby  neutralizing  or  counteracting  acids. 

ALKALOIDS  are  such  substances  as  morphine,  cocaine 
and  the  like. 

ALLOY — When  metals  are  melted  and  mixed  together 
they  form  alloys. 

ALMOND  OIL  is  used  in  pharmacy  for  making  emulsions 
and  ointments. 

ALMOND  PASTE  manufacturing.  Grinding  and  crush- 
ing almonds,  mixing  and  cooking  in  steam  heated  kettles 
with  glucose. 

ALMS  HOUSES — Correctional  institutions  and  insane 
asylums  have  a  severe  moral  hazard  due  to  the  defective  men- 
talities and  proclivities  of  the  inmates,  such  as  pyromaniacs, 
which  might  take  a  vicious  turn  and  set  fire  to  the  building 
to  escape  therefrom.  Usually  of  a  large  area,  with  open 
shafts  and  well  holes.  Boiler  house,  kitchen,  laundry,  paint 
and  carpenter  shops,  also  attics  used  for  storage  are  impor- 
tant hazards.     See  Asylums. 

ALPHABETICAL  LIST— A  rating  bureau  booklet  con- 
taining charges  to  be  added  to  the  ''base  rate"  for  goods  in 
storage   stores.     See   Storage. 

ALTERNATING  CURRENT— Difference  between  direct 
and  alternating  current:  Direct  current  flows  continually  in 
one  direction;  alternating  current  flows  back  and  forth,  con- 
stantly changing  direction  around  the  circuit.  A  direct  cur- 
rent of  same  voltage  is  considered  the  more  dangerous. 

ALTERNATING  (MOTION— Up  or  down,  or  backward 
and  forward,  instead  of  revolving. 

ALUM  POTASSIUM  (aluminum  sulphate)— Can  be  used 
as  good  fire-extinguishing  agents. 

ALUMINATES — Compounds  of  alumina  with  potassium 
or  sodium. 

ALUMINUM — A  white  metal  which  melts  about  the  fusing 
point  of  zinc.  In  powdered  form,  burns  readily.  The  manu- 
facturing process  is  very  hazardous. 


16  INSI^ECTION   Ai^D   UllDERWRltiJJC 

ALUMINUM  BRONZE  POWDERS  are  of  different  de- 
grees of  fineness,  the  finer  forms  being  extremely  hazardous 
on  account  of  the  ease  with  which  they  may  become  ignited. 
Water  when  applied  to  the  burning  powder  increases  the 
force  of  the  flames  and  may  create  an  explosion. 

ALUMINUM  PAINT— See  Bronzing  Liquids. 

AMALGAM — A  combination  of  any  metal  with  mercury. 

AMBER — A  fossil  resin.  Inflammable.  Highly  electrical 
when  rubbed.  Used  extensively  for  pipe  stems.  Imitation 
amber,  may  be  celluloid  or  gum  resins. 

AMMETER,  AMPEREMETER— An  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  quantity  of  electrical  current  flowing  in  a  circuit. 

AMMONIA  is  a  compound  of  two  gases,  hydrogen  and 
nitrogen,  one  atom  of  nitrogen  and  three  atoms  of  hydro- 
gen; it  is  a  gas  at  ordinary  temperature  and  pressure.  Chiefly 
obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  illuminating 
gas  from  the  distillation  of  coal,  and  from  the  manufacture 
of  coke  in  by-product  coke  ovens. 

AMMONIA  GAS— Not  inflammable.  In  case  of  fire  the 
heat  will  cause  the  gas  to  expand  and  cylinders  to  burst 
(coils  usually  have  lead  joints  which  expand  and  prevent 
rupture).  Ammonia  gas  will  kill  almost  instantly  when  a 
fire  breaks  out  where  ammonia  is  used  for  refrigeration, 
therefore  no  one  will  stay  to  fight  it  and  the  plant  burns  un- 
less the  firemen  are  equipped  with  helmets.  In  cold  storage 
risks,  heat  has  been  known  to  expand  the  cold  air  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  burst  the  walls  of  the  building.  It  is  soluble  in 
water,  the  solution  commonly  called  aqua  ammonia.  See 
Refrigeration. 

AMMONIA  HELMET  as  manufactured  by  American-La- 
France  Fire  ^Engine  Co.,  consists  simply  of  a  sturdy  leather 
helmet  which  is  pulled  over  the  head,  and  a  tank  which  is 
swung  from  the  shoulder.  By  means  of  a  flexible  metallic 
tube,  pure  air  from  the  tank  is  passed  to  the  interior  of  the 
helmet,  thus  affording  the  wearer  an  ample  supply  of  pure 
air;  simply  opening  a  valve  makes  the  outfit  ready  for  action. 

AMMONIA  WATER— See  Aqua  Ammonia. 

AMMONIUM   CARBONATE— See  Heat  Liberation. 

AMMONIUM  NITRATE— See  Heat  Liberation. 


:        AMMUNITION   FACTORIES  17 

AMMONIUM  HYDROXIDE— See  Aqua  Ammonia. 

AMMONIUM  PICRATE— A  crystalline  powder  of  yellow 
color,  highly  explosive. 

AMMONIUM  SALTS  are  volatile. 

AMMONIUM  SULPHATE— Derived  from  gas  works; 
principally  used  in  fertilizer  plants.  Not  considered 
hazardous. 

AMMUNITION — Not  necessarily  the  same  as  munitions, 
the  former  applying  to  explosives  and  the  latter  to  supplies 
of  war. 

AMMUNITION  FACTORIES— Blending,  dry  houses  and 
loading  of  fuses  are  the  most  hazardous.  Loading  fuses,  if 
properly  arranged,  is  not  dangerous.  Powder  house  drying 
and  blending-houses  are  seldom  insured. 

AMOLENE — A  benzine  substitute,  classed  as  kerosene. 

AMPERE — The  electrical  unit  for  measuring  current,  as 
200  ampere.  An  ampere  is  that  current  which  one  volt  will 
force  through  one  ohm  of  resistance. 

AMPEREMETER— See  Ammeter. 

AMYL  ALCOHOL— Prepared  from  the  residue  of  grain 
alcohol  distillation,  known  also  as  fusel  oil. 

AMYL  ACETATE— Prepared  by  treating  amyl  alcohol 
with  acetate  of  lime  in  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
distilling.  A  clear,  colorless  liquid,  having  an  odor  like 
bananas.  Used  as  a  solvent  for  nitrocellulose.  Flash  point 
65  to  70  degrees  F.     See  Banana  Oil. 

AMYL  ACETATE  LACQUER  (Pear  Perfume)  contains 
celluloid  in  solution. 

AMUSEMENT  ENTERPRISES— Usually  large  area,  light 
frame  construction  in  sparsely  settled  locations;  season  occu- 
pancy only.  Fires  caused  by  cigarettes  and  matches.  Bad 
fire  record. 

AN-ffiSTHETICS — Volatile  liquids  (used  to  produce  anes- 
thesia), such  as  ether,  chloroform,  nitrous  oxides. 

ANGLE  IRON — A  bar  of  iron  with  cross  section  shaped 
like  the  letter  "L"  or  at  an  angle  of  90  .degrees. 

ANGOLA  is  a  mixture  of  cotton  and  wool. 

ANHYDRIDES— Compounds  free  from  water.  See  Hy- 
drates. 


18  INSPECTION  AND   UNDERWRITING 

ANHYDROUS  AMMONIA,  by  reason  of  its  ability  to 
liquify  under  comparatively  low  pressure,  is  most  generally 
employed  in  refrigerating  and  ice  making  machines.  It  is 
compressed  liquid  gas,  non-combustible. 

ANILINE  is  a  product  of  coal  tar  produced  by  distillation. 
Also  prepared  by  reducing  nitro-benzine  with  iron  and  hy- 
drochloric acid. 

ANILINE  DYES— Process  consists  of  cold  mixing  in 
wooden  tanks,  boiling  in  steel  tanks,  kettles  and  retorts  (some 
under  pressure),  gas  or  steam  heated.  The  raw  materials  are 
aniline  oil,  napthalene,  nitro-benzole,  zinc  dust,  sodium 
nitrate,  sodium  nitrite,  nitric  acid,  fuming  and  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid,  muriatic,  hydrochloric  and  acetic  acids,  caus- 
tic soda,  sodium  bisulphide,  carbolic  acid,  dimethyl  and 
ethyl  aniline,  salt-petre,  castor  oil,  barium  peroxide,  prussiate 
of  potash,  bichromate  of  potash,  red  oil,  hydrogen  peroxide, 
salts,  etc.  The  first  process  is  to  make  the  intermediates 
(use  dimethyl  and  ethyl  aniline  and  similar  substances),  or 
base  for  dyes,  and  then  to  produce  and  precipitate  the  colors 
themselves,  followed  by  drying,  grinding  and  mixing  of 
finished  colors.  Some  of  these  chemicals  are  inflammable  and 
carelessness  or  accident  will  cause  fire  or  explosion  by  com- 
bining certain  chemicals.  Large  quantities  of  chemicals,  al- 
cohol, acids  and  oxidizing  agents  are  a  source  of  danger. 

In  nitrosating,  chemicals  (usually  dimethyl  and  diethyl  ani- 
line), are  placed  in  wood  tanks  with  water,  ice  and  acids, 
then  treated  with  solution  of  sodium  nitrite  and  acids,  dried 
in  centrifugal  extractors.    , 

Autoclaves  are  used  in  manufacturing  intermediate  aniline 
products  such  as  dimethyl  and  ethyl  aniline  (a  mixture  of 
aniline  oil,  alcohol  and  acids).  They  are  steel  retorts,  asbes- 
tos clad,  heated  by  direct  gas  heat,  under  pressure,  to  about 
350  deg.  F.,  and  developing  and  maintaining  a  pressure  of 
about  500  lbs.  for  several  hours,  the  resulting  product  con- 
tained therein  and  thus  formed  is  treated  with  alkalies,  re- 
dissolved  and  washed.  Autoclaves  should  have  a  relief  valve 
of  one-half  inch  and  vent  and  smoke  pipes  to  outer  air. 

Color  drying  and  grinding  and  alcohol  reclaiming  are  se- 
vere hazards.     When  grinding  dry  colors,   fires   are   so  fre- 


ANIMAL   OILS.  19 

quent  that  an  employee  is  usually  stationed 'at  the  grinder 
with  a  hose  or  fire  extinguisher.  See  Paste  Colors.  See 
Color  Works. 

ANIMAL  CHARCOAL  (or  Bone  Black)  consists  of  a 
charcoal  formed  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  bones.  Non- 
inflammable   solid.     See   Charcoal. 

ANIMAL  OILS  are  divided  into  two  classes — the  first  class 
is  prepared  from  the  fat  of  land  animals,  while  the  second 
class  is  derived  from  fish  or  some  of  the  warm  blooded  ma- 
rine animals.  They  are  inflammable  and  would  readily  assist 
a  fire  in  a  building,  but  are  practically  without  the  spon- 
taneous combustion   hazard.     See  Vegetable   Oils. 

ANIMI — A  resinous  gum  used  in  varnish  manufacturing. 

ANNATTO — A  yellow-red  pigment,  chiefly  used  in  dyeing 
silk. 

ANNEALING — The  heating  and  gradual  cooling  of  metals, 
glass,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  removing  brittleness  or  in- 
creasing ductility.  High  temperatures  required  and  setting 
of  furnaces  important. 

ANNEALING  FURNACES  (used  in  glass  works),  resem- 
ble ordinary  bakers'  ovens,  arranged  in  series  of  three  or  four 
adjoining,  and  heated  by  gas  flames.  The  hot  glassware  is 
introduced  by  hand  and  removed  from  one  oven  to  another, 
each  being  heated  at  a  reduced  temperature  to  perfect  an- 
nealing without  rupture. 

ANTHRACENE— A  product  of  the  distillation  of  coal 
found  in  the  residual  tar.  Boiling  point  about  550  degrees  F. 
Anthracene  is  separated  from  the  tar  distillate  by  cooling  and 
freezing,  and  is  finally  purified  by  washings  in  naphtha.  This 
process  should  only  be  done  in  a  detached  building  and  there 
should  be  no  artificial  light  or  heat  therein. 

ANTIMONY  oxidizes  when  very  hot.     Its  oxide  is  volatile. 

ANTIMONY  SULPHIDE,  used  in  match  heads,  very  in- 
flammable and  in  burning  gives  off  sulphur  dioxide. 

ANTIQUES — Usually  consist  of  porcelains,  furniture, 
draperies,  odds  and  ends  of  novelties.  The  collection  of  an- 
tiques is  usually  a  hobby  and  in  the  eyes  of  the  owner,  the 
value  increases  in  the  event  of  a  fire.  Should  not  be  insured 
unless  inventoried.     Dealers  in  high  class  goods  usually  keep 


20  INSPECTION   AND   UNDERWRITING 

die  smaller  and  more  valuable  articles  in  a  vault.  Real  an- 
tiques cannot  be  replaced,  and,  like  old  wine,  the  value  in- 
creases with  age.  The  moral  hazard  is  important.  Inspec- 
tion and  mercantile  report  required  by  most  underwriters. 
Antiques,  so-called,  are  being  made  in  factories  devoted  to 
that  purpose.     See  Art  Galleries. 

ANVIL  MANUFACTURING— Hazards  of  machine  shop, 
foundry,  pattern  shop  and  storage.  Large  drop  hammers  are 
sometimes  used,  and  small  fires  may  so  affect  them  as  to 
warp  the  beds  of  the  hammers  and  render  them  useless,  ex- 
cept as  old  iron. 

ANVILS — The  combustible  floor,  4  feet  all  around,  should 
be  protected  against  falling  red-hot  particles. 

APARTMENT  HOTEL— A  hotel  in  which  apartments  are 
rented  in  suites  for  a  term  usually  not  less  than  a  month,  in 
which  there  are  no  kitchens,  dining  rooms  or  serving  rooms, 
but  a  common  dining  room.     See  Hotels. 

APARTMENT  HOUSE— A  building  occupied  by  three  or 
more  families  for  dwelling  purposes  only.  The  "New  Law" 
apartments  (of  New  York  City),  are  much  more  desirable 
risks  than  the  old  type  in  that  the  grade  floor,  and  sometimes 
the  second  floor,  is  of  fire-proof  construction;  i.  e.,  brick, 
terra  cotta,  or  concrete  arches  on  steel  beams,  and  the  hall- 
ways and  dumb  waiter  shafts  throughout  are  either  brick, 
terra  cotta,  or  plaster  block  witth  metal-covered  (kalameined) 
doors  at  openings.  The  exterior  light  courts  are  usually  very 
large. 

The  old  type  of  apartments  are  of  the  ordinary  joisted 
floor  construction;  the  floor  openings,  such  as  stairways,  vent 
shafts  and  dumb  waiter  shafts,  are  of  combustible  material. 
The  exterior  light  courts  are  usually  very  small  and  have 
ordinary  windows  facing  the  windows  of  adjoining  buildings 
in  the  row.  Many  fires  have  traveled  from  one  building  to 
another  through  these  exterior  (or  interior)  shafts.  See 
Dwellings. 

APEX— A  point  in  either  chord  of  a  truss  where  two  web 
members  meet. 

APOTHECARIES— See   Drug  Stores. 

APPLICATION   FOR   INSURANCE— Legally,   it  should 


APPRAISALS   FOR   GO-INSURANCE  21 

be  made  out  and  signed  by  the  applicant.  In  common  prac- 
tice, an  application  is  made  verbally  or  the  facts  concerning 
the  proposed  insurance  are  written  in  by  the  agent  or  coun- 
terman. It  should  state  the  name,  location,  amount,  date  of 
commencement  and  expiration,  property  covered,  liens  arid 
encumbrances.     See  Binder. 

APPRAISALS  FOR  CO-INSURANCE— When  it  is  de- 
sired to  insure  buildings  held  by  trustees,  executors,  admin- 
istrators or  others  acting  in  a  fiduciary  capacity  on  behalf 
of  minors  or  incompetents,  a  certified  appraiser  may  be  en- 
gaged to  fix  the  amount  in  advance  so  that  the  policies  will 
comply  with  the  provisions  of  the  co-insurance  clause.  Ap- 
praisers' fees  are  usually  as  follows:  Valuation  $10,000  or  un- 
der, $10;  $10,000  to  $20,000,  $1  per  thousand;  $20,000  to  $100,- 
000.  $2  for  first  $20,000  and  50  cents  per  $1,000  in  excess  over 
$20,000;  $100,000  or  over,  $60  for  first  $100,000  and  25  cents 
per  $1,000  for  the  excess  of  $100,000.' 

APRON= — A  covering  of  timber  or  metal  to  protect  a  sur- 
face against  the  action  of  water  flowing  over  it.  In  theatres, 
it  is  the  portion  of  the  stage  floor  which  projects  into  the 
auditorium.     Also  has  many  other  meanings. 

APPROVED — Signifies  that  the  device  used  has  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Board  of  Underwriters,  and  has  been  tested  by 
the  Underwriters  Laboratories.  Such  devices  are  always 
labelled. 

AQUA  AMMONIA — A  clear  colorless  liquid  consists  of 
ammonia  gas  dissolved  in  water.     Non-hazardous. 

AQUA  FORTIS  is  the  common  name  for  nitric  acid. 

AQUA  REGIA— See  Nitro-Hydrochloric  Acid. 

ARBATINE — A  paint  thinner,  similar  to  turpentine. 

ARBOR— See  Journal. 

ARC — Made  by  electricity;  is  always  productive  of  heat, 
the  intensity  of  which  is  dependent  upon  the  voltage  and 
amount  of  current. 

ARC  LAMP — An  electric  lamp  in  which  the  light  is  pro- 
duced by  an  electric  arc  formed  by  passing  a  current  across 
the  space  between  two  carbons.  Open  arc  lamps  should 
never  be  used  where  explosives  or  inflammable  vapors,  dust 
or  light  flyings  are  present. 


i2  INSPECTION  AND  UNDERwklTlNG 

•ARCADES— See   Shooting   Galleries. 

ARCH,  as  used  in  building  construction,  is  that  portion  of 
a' floor  between  beams  or  girders;  or  an  opening  through  a 
wall. 

ARCHITECT'S  PLANS— Drawings,  specifications  and 
blue  prints  take  a  higher  rate  than  the  office  fixtures.  Ben- 
zine is  used  for  cleaning  smudge  marks  from  tracings.     The 


Before  any  building  is  erected,  the  architect  should  have 
a  competent  insurance  engineer  review  the  plans  with  a 
double  purpose  in  view:  First,  to  make  a  building  safer. 
Second,   to  lower  the  insurance  rate. 

wise  architect  will  submit  the  plans  for  his  proposed  build- 
ing to  an  insurance  rating  expert  before  the  work  is  started 
so  that  he  may  obtain  the  lowest  rate  of  insurance  when  the 
structure  is  completed.     See   Plans. 

ARCO  SPOTZOFF— A  cleaning  fluid,  flashes  at  ordinary 
temperatures;  classed  as  volatile,  inflammable  liquid. 


1 


ARMORIES  23 

AREA  OF  A  BUILDING  includes  the  thickness  of  the 
walls.  Floor  area  is  the  space  inside  of  the  walls  excluding 
partitions.  The  greater  the  area,  the  greater  are  the  possi- 
bilities of  a  fire  spreading.  Areas  in  excess  of  5,000  feet  are 
usually  penalized  in  rating  schedules.  Fire  stops  of  brick  or 
concrete  walls,  12  inches  thick,  with  approved  fire  doors, 
should  be  provided  to  decrease  the  area. 

AREAWAYS — Fires  are  spread  to  basements  by  means  of 
poorly     protected     window      openings.      Pedestrians      drop 
cigarette   butts   and   mischievous   boys   make  fires  in  them. 
Careless   tenants   use   them   for   rubbish   dumps.     See   Cellar 
Fires. 

ARGOLS — The  scrapings  from  the  inside  of  wine  casks, 
from  which  cream  of  tartar  is  made. 

ARMORED — A  name  sometimes  used  for  reinforced  con- 
crete. 

ARMORIES — The  enormous  area  and  height  are  the  pre- 
dominating poor  features.  The  height  and  span  of  roof  re- 
quire exceptionally  heavy  walls  and  supports.  Hazards  of 
careless  smokers,  armorers'  shops,  ammunition  storage,  paint 
shops,  stables,  mild  dance  hall  hazard  and  hospital.  On  Jan- 
uary 17,  1917,  the  Second  Regiment  Armory  at  Albany  burned 
causing  a  nearly  total  loss.  About  2,000,000  rounds  of  am- 
munition exploded,  impeding  the  progress  of  the  firemen  and 
rendering  fire  fighting  dangerous  and  difficult. 

ARRIS — The  sharp  edge  or  ridge  on  stone  or  metal. 
f    ARSENALS  usually  contain  a  large  amount  of  explosives. 
The  mixing  and  blending  should  be  located  away  from  ex- 
posed buildings. 

ARSENIC  ACID— A  white  crystalline  solid  material,  not 
inflammable. 

ARSENIC  TRIOXIDE— See  arsenious  acid. 

ARSENIOUS  ACID— A  white,  solid  matter  not  inflamma- 
ble. 

ARSON — The  burning  of  property,  usually  spite  work  or 
for  revenge;  malicious  burning. 

ART  GALLERIES — Usually  large  open  areas  with  open  or 
poorly  protected  floor  openings  and  numerous  well  holes.  The 
contents,  mainly  paintings,  bric-a-brac,  and  other  easily  dam- 


24  INSPECTION  AND  UNDERWRITING 

aged  articles.  As  a  rule  under  careful  management,  but  sub- 
ject to  severe  loss  in  case  of  fire.     See  Antiques.    . 

ART  GOODS — A  delicate  stock  usually  consisting  of  a 
large  proportion  of  fabrics  both  modern  and  old,  which 
usually  prove  a  total  loss  in  case  of  fire,  except  pure  gold 
or  silver  threaded  goods,  which  can  be  smeltered  and  the 
precious  metal  reclaimed.  Pictures  and  bric-a-brac  form  a 
large  value. 

ARTIFICIAL  FLOWERS  AND  FEATHERS— See  Flow- 
ers and  Feathers. 

ASBESTIC — A  composition  mined  in  Canada  containing  a 
large  percentage  of  asbestos. 

ASBESTIC  PLASTER  is  made  by  mixing  lime,  putty, 
freshly  slaked  lime,  and  a  certain  percentage  of  asbestos. 

ASBESTOS— A  mineral,  both  fibrous  and  crystalline.  Can 
be  carded,  spun  and  woven.  Not  afTected  by  acids.  Three 
general  classes,  amphibole,  antophyllite  and  serpentine.  The 
first  two  are  much  alike  and  are  silicates  of  lime,  magnesia 
and  alumina  (hornblend).  The  serpentine  is  a  hydrated  sili- 
cate of  magnesia. 

ASBESTOS  BOARDS— Used  as  lumber;  are  approximate- 
ly 80  per  cent,  portland  cement  and  20  per  cent,  asbestos  fibre, 
moulded  and  pressed  into  sheets  one-eighth  inch  to  one  inch 
thick  under  hydraulic  pressure.  Can  be  worked  with  ma- 
chine tools. 

ASBESTOS  GOODS— Such  as  paper,  textiles,  gaskets, 
washers,  curtains,  shingles,  boards,  belt  linings  and  electrical 
goods.  Processes  are  mixing,  grinding,  rolling,  picking,  card- 
ing, weaving,  spinning,  drying  with  direct  heat.  Materials 
used  include  benzine,  japan,  mineral  oils,  asphaltum,  graphite, 
wax,  cotton  and  excelsior.  Hazards  include  carpenter  shop, 
foundry,  metal  working,  paper  and  textile  machinery,  print- 
ing. In  making  roof  paper  use  paper  and  cloth  saturated 
with  asphalt,  oil  solutions,  cement,  and  coated  with  rubber 
solution  thinned  with  benzine.  In  making  tape  and  washers 
do  weaving  and  winding  and  treat  with  rubber  cement,  then 
vulcanize.  The  foundry,  mixing  house  for  naphtha,  rubber  and 
cement  mixtures,  the  oil  house,  the  benzine  vault  and  japan- 
ing  room  should  be  outside  in  separate  enclosures.     Drying, 


26  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

picking,  carding,  can  soldering  and  vulcanizing  are  also  im- 
portant hazards. 

ASBESTOS  INSULATORS— For  pipe  coverings  and  boiler 
casings  are  composed  of  about  85  per  cent  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia and  15  per  cent  asbestos  fibre.  When  applied  at  least 
1  inch  thick  are  very  effective.  Applied  same  as  cement.  Be- 
sides its  economic  value,  it  decreases  the  degree  of  heat  ra- 
diated from  a  boiler  or  pipe.     See  Insulators. 

ASBESTOS  PAINT— See  Fire  Resisting  Solutions. 

ASBESTOS  THEATRE  CURTAINS— The  proscenium 
curtain  shall  be  composed  of  asbestos  of  long,  tough,  flexible 
fibre,  twisted  and  wrapped  upon  substantial  brass  wire  thread 
and  woven  into  a  close,  even  cloth,  3  feet  wide.  The  strips 
must  be  lapped  not  less  than  1  inch  and  sewed  with  two 
lines  of  asbestos  and  brass  wire  stitching.  All  strips  shall  be 
in  one  continuous  length  the  full  height  of  the  curtain. 
There  shall  be  at  least  4  laps  of  the  cloth  at  the  top  and  at 
the  bottom  of  the  curtain  to  form  pockets  for  the  top  and 
bottom  bars,  and  the  curtain  shall  be  lapped  on  the  sides  to 
form  a  continuous  reinforcement  for  the  guide  clips. 

The  curtain  shall  be  at  least  36  inches  wider  than  the  pro- 
scenium masonry  opening,  and  at  least  2  feet  higher  than  the 
highest  point  of  the  proscenium  arch.  It  shall  have  wrought 
iron  or  rolled  steel  top  and  bottom  bars  proportioned^  to  size 
to  the  width  of  the  curtain,  but  not  less  than  1  inch  by  2^^ 
inches.  The  top  and  bottom  bars  shall  be  connected  by  four 
steel  wire  cables  i%  inches  in  diameter  to  support  the  weight 
of  the  bottom  bar. 

The  curtain  must  be  supported  by  steel  lifting  cables,  one 
at  each  end  and  intermediate  points  not  over  10  feet  apart. 
It  shall  be  balanced  by  a  counterweight  only  to  such  extent 
that  when  it  is  tripped  the  descent  will  be  made  in  15  sec- 
onds. The  curtain  must  operate  in  guides  bolted  every  2 
feet  to  the  proscenium  wall.  All  apparatus  connected  with 
the  curtain  or  its  operation  shall  be  of  metal.  All  paint  used 
on  the  curtain  must  be  incombustible.  Underwriters'  re- 
quirements.)    See  Theatres. 

ASBESTOS  WOOD  is  made  of  short  asbestos  fibres. 

ASCHE  BUILDING  FIRE   (Triangle  Waist),  March  25, 


ASPHALT  27 

1911,  23-29  Washington  Place,  New  York  City,  10-story  fire- 
proof, steel  and  cast  iron  skeleton  construction,  terra  cotta 
arches,  ironwork  protected  with  cement  and  tile.  Fire  sup- 
posed to  have  been  caused  by  cigarette  or  match  dropped  in 
basket  of  clippings.  The  145  lives  lost  due  principally  to 
locked  exit  doors. 

ASHES  should  be  kept  only  in  metal  receptacles,  the  bot- 
tom of  which  should  be  raised  above  the  floor.  Numerous 
fires  are  caused  by  hot  ashes  in  wooden  or  cardboard  boxes. 

ASHLAR — A  wall  facing  of  stone,  usually  of  a  granular 
nature  such  as  granite  or  marble.  Easily  damaged  by  direct 
or  radiated  heat  from  an  exposure  fire  resulting  in  consider- 
able loss  under  building  insurance  policies. 

ASPHALINE  consists  of  bran  impregnated  with  chlorate 
of  potash. 

ASPHALT — A  bituminous  substance  which  probably  owes 
its  origin  to  a  vegetable  matter  which  has  been  subjected  to 
a  slow  process  of  decomposition  or  decay  resulting  in  the 
production  of  a  bituminous  coal,  from  which,  by  volcanic 
agency,  the  asphalt  has  been  distilled  and  diffused  over 
neighboring  districts. 

ASPHALT  WORKS— In  most  plants  the  asphalt  is  already 
refined  when  received  from  the  previous  plant,  then  placed  in 
coal  fired  or  steam  kettles,  then  roughly  mixed  with  cracked 
stone  and  sand  from  steam  heated  rotary  driers.  Usually  lo- 
cated in  old  frame  buildings  outside  of  protection.  This 
class  is  not  considered  desirable  insurance. 

ASPHALTUM  PAINT  OR  VARNISH  consists  of  as- 
phaltum  solution  of  benzine  or  other  solvents. 

ASSAYERS — Careful  class  of  people.  Ores  are  ground, 
washed  and  valuable  minerals  extracted  by  dissolving  same 
in  acid  (heated)  baths.  The  minerals  are  then  reclaimed  by 
electricity  and  melted  in  annealing  and  smelting  furnaces. 
The  laboratory  and  acid  sections  are  the  most  hazard- 
ous. 

ASSETS  are  the  funds,  stocks,  bonds  or  other  resources 
from  which  the  company  obtains  funds  to  carry  on  the  busi- 
ness.    See  Liability  of  a  Company. 

ASSIGNEE — A  person  assigned  by  a  court  to  take  charge 


28  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  the  affairs  of  an  insolvent  firm,  to  wind  up  an  estate  or 
similar  functions.     See  Trade  Reports. 

ASSIGNEE'S  SALES  STORES— Goods  purchased  at  low 
figures  may  be  insured  for  much  larger  amounts.  Should 
only  be  written  after  careful  inspection. 

ASSURED,  OR  THE  INSURED— The  person  mentioned 
in  the  policy  as  the  legal  owner  or  custodian  of  property 
set  forth  in  the  form  of  the  policy. 

ASTRAL  OIL— See  Mineral-Burning  Oil. 

ASTROGAL — A  small  moulding  about  semi-circular  or 
semi-elliptic  and  either  plain  or  ornamented  by  carving. 

ASYLUMS — Hazards  of  manual-training  class  rooms,  work 
shops,  weaving  raffia  and  dyeing  same  with  aniline  or  ben- 
zine-thinned colors,  carpet  weaving.     See  Alms  Houses. 

"ATE" — Chemical  termination  applied  to  certain  salts. 

ATOM — An  indivisible  particle.  The  smallest  portion  into 
which  an  elemental  substance  can  be  divided. 

ATTICS  should  be  kept  clean  of  rubbish  or  old  furniture, 
as  the  dry,  unprotected  wood  is  easily  ignited  and  the  fire 
flashes  quickly  over  the  surface.  In  dwellings,  usually  the 
dumping  place  for  all  kinds  of  trash.  In  frame  rows,  where 
attics  or  roof  spaces  communicate,  fires  travel  quickly  from 
one  building  to  the  entire  row.  See  Roof  Space,  also  Frame 
Rows. 

ATTRITION  MACHINES  are  high  speed  machines,  re- 
volving at  1,500  or  more  revolutions  per  minute.  Consist  of 
two  metal  discs,  separated  by  a  narrow  space  and  turning  in 
opposite  directions,  between  which  the  material  to  be  ground 
is  passed. 

AUCTION  STOCKS  are  of  varying  description,  from  dia- 
monds and  precious  stones  to  second-hand  clothing  and  fur- 
niture. In  the  latter  class,  the  premises  are  usually  crowded, 
untidy  and  have  work  shops  for  repairing  and  refinishing 
goods.     As  a  class,  are  not  desirable. 

AUTHORIZATIONS — Fire  insurance  companies  have  un- 
derwriters or  examiners  to  make  authorizations  on  the  risks 
which  they  assume.  Authorizations  usually  read  so  much  on 
building  and  so  much  on  contents.  Say  an  authorization  is 
$125,000  on  building  or  $75,000  on  contents,  or  three-fifths  as 


AUTOMATIC    FIRE    DOOR    RELEASE  29 

much  contents  as  building  being  five-thirds  as  much  building 
as  contents.  In  other  words,  if  the  line  is  $125,000  and  a 
$25,000  policy  is  written,  the  company  is  still  open  for  $100,- 
000  line  on  building,  or  three-fifths  as  much  on  the  contents, 
$60,000.     See  Reinsurance. 

AUTOCLAVE— See  Aniline  Dyes. 

AUTOGENOUS  WELDING— Acetylene  gas,  blau  gas  or 
hydrogen  used.  Two  cylinders  of  250  cubic  feet  of  com- 
pressed combustible  gas  or  one  day's  supply  permitted.  Re- 
serve cylinders  of  gas  should  be  kept  outside  of  building 
sorne  distance  away.  If  inside,  to  be  in  vault  of  8  inches  of 
brickwork  or  4  inches  of  concrete,  with  approved  fire  door, 
and  ventilated  to  outer  air.  The  National  Board  permits,  at 
one  time,  five  cylinders  to  be  kept,  if  necessary,  in  a  double- 
walled  metal  closet,  ventilated,  with  fire  door  equivalent  to 
walls  of  the  closet.  See  Blow  Pipes,  also  Oxy-Acetylene 
Welding. 

AUTOMAT— See  Embroideries. 

AUTOMATIC  DOOR  OR  WINDOW— One  which  closes 
automatically  by  means  of  a  device  operated  by  heat. 

AUTOMATIC  FIRE  DOOR  RELEASE— In  the  near 
future  it  is  expected  that  the  N.  F.  P.  A.  will  require  an 
automatic  door  release  in  place  of  the  present  fusible  links 
in  almost  all  cases.  After  exhaustive  tests  as  to  the  relative 
efificiency  of  the  fusible  links  and  a  fire-door  release,  the 
N.  F.  P.  A.  says: 

"The  rate  of  temperature  rise  device  is  very  much  more 
sensitive  to  fire  than  the  fusible  link,  and  under  the  same 
fire  conditions  will  operate  and  release  fire-doors  far  in  ad- 
vance of  the  fusible  link, 

"In  the  tests  made,  the  rate  of  temperature  rise  device 
operated  in  all  cases  in  sufficient  time  to  permit  the  doors 
to  close  before  there  was  any  danger  of  fire  passing  through 
the  wall  opening,  while  in  only  one  case  was  it  clear  that 
this  was  accomplished  by  a  fusible  link,  and  in  this  case  the 
margin  of  safety  was  slight.  In  two  cases  the  fusible  links 
failed  to  operate,  although  the  rate  of  temperature  rise  device 
operated  in  34  seconds  and  in  1  minute  and  15  seconds,  re- 
spectively, in  these  tests. 


30  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

**In  the  first  and  second  tests,  the  rate  of  temperature  ris< 
device  operated  in  approximately  one-third  of  the  time  re 
quired  for  the  most  sensitive  fusible  links,  and  in  abou 
one-fourth  of  the  time  required  for  the  least  sensitive  of  th« 
fusible  links. 

"In  the  third  and  fourth  tests,  the  rate  of  temperature  ris( 
device  operated  and  the  fusible  links  failed  to  operate. 

"The  tests  indicate  that  under  average  normal  condition! 
in  fairly  still  air  an  approved  form  of  rate  of  temperature 
rise  device  will  probably  operate  in  less  than  one  minut< 
when  exposed  to  reasonably  small  freely  burning  fires  severa 
feet  distant,  and  that  1^  minutes  is  a  safe  limit  of  per 
formance  under  such  conditions.  The  tests  also  indicate 
that  about  double  this,  or  3  minutes,  is  a  reasonable  limita 
tion  for  fusible  links  under  the  conditions  mentioned." 

The  release  is  an  approved  device  of  a  pneumatic  compen 
sating  type,  the  mechanism  consisting  of  one  or  more  ai 
chambers,  a  system  of  levers  and  a  diaphragm  mounted  in  ; 
metal  case.  The  release  operates  when  the  rate  of  tempera 
ture  increase  is  abnormal,  as  in  fire  conditions,  or  at  the  rat< 
of  15  degrees  or  more  a  minute.  The  device  will  release  ; 
fire-door  from  an  incipient  fire  25  feet  distant. 

AUTOMATIC  SPRINKLERS— See  Sprinklers. 

AUTOMOBILE  BODY  BUILDERS  may  use  converte( 
wagon  builders  or  wheelwright  shops.  Hazards  of  wood  an( 
metal  working  include  oily  floors,  varnish  and  paint  hazard 
celluloid  for  windshields,  upholstering,  picker  for  hair,  gaso 
lene  in  tanks  of  cars,  gasoline  for  cleaning  grease  from  part 
which  are  to  be  painted. 

AUTOMOBILE  FIRES  originating  about  the  engine  fron 
back-fires,  short  circuits  of  electric  wiring,  overheate< 
breaks,  gasoline  on  fire  in  carburettor,  etc.,  are  hard  to  ex 
tinguish.  A  quantity  of  oil  on  the  engine  or  in  drip  pan  feed 
the  fire.  Water  is  of  little  value.  Sand  or  dirt  thrown  oi 
is  better,  but  a  carbon-tetra  chloride  (base)  extinguisher  i 
best.  See  Back-fires  in  Automobiles,  also  Gasoline  Spray  fo 
Automobiles  and  Oxygen  Cleaning  Process. 

AUTOMOBILE  TIRES— Many,  when  shipped  from  th 
factory,  are  wrapped  in  a  paper,  the  inner  side  of  which  ha 


AVERAGE   OR   CO-INSURANCE   CLAUSE  31 

been  treated  with  a  water-proof  solution.  When  the  paper 
is  wet,  the  asphaltum  composition  adheres  to  the  tire.  Unless 
it  can  be  thoroughly  removed  with  benzine,  the  tires  are 
classed  as  seconds.     All  tire  stocks  should  be  skidded. 

AVERAGE  OR  CO-INSURANCE  CLAUSE— The  80  per 
cent  clause  is  an  "equalizer."  It  equalizes  the  payment  for 
indemnity  and  cost  of  same  among  property  owners  by  com- 
pelling the  insured  to  become  a  co-insurer  (as  an  individual 
insurance  company),  when  he  fails  to  maintain  the  proper 
percentage  of  insurance  to  value.  It  does  not  mean  that  a 
company  pays  only  80  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  loss,  but 
it  does  mean  that  where  there  is  a  deficiency  of  insurance, 
payment  is  made  only  in  the  ratio  that  the  insurance  bears 
to  80  per  cent  of  the  actual  or  cash  value  of  the  property  cov- 
ered. The  clause  is  inoperative  when:  1 — The  conditions 
have  been  fulfilled;  2 — When  the  insurance  exceeds  80  per 
cent  of  value;  3 — When  loss  exceeds  80  per  cent  of  value;  4 — 
In  case  of  total  loss. 

In  case  of  total  loss,  the  insured  automatically  becomes  a 
co-insurer  when  his  insurance  is  less  than  the  value  of  the 
property.  He  can  collect  only  the  face  value  of  his  pol- 
icies and  must  stand  the  balance  of  the  loss  himself.  When 
the  loss  exceeds  80  per  cent  of  value,  the  company  pays 
policy  in  full. 

The  average  clause  was  established  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a  uniform  basis  of  value  upon  which  rates  could  be 
fixed  without  unfair  discrimination  against  either  the  insur- 
ance company  or  the  insured.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
that  values  would  not  be  insured  above  50  per  cent  were  it 
not  for  the  co-insurance  clause  as  the  average  loss  seldom 
exceeds  that  figure  and  the  companies  would  thus  be  deprived 
of  an  equal  proportion  of  premiums.  Furthermore,  poor  risks 
are  usually  fully  insured  and  losses  o^  such  property  are  paid 
from  premiums  derived  from  good  risks.  From  the  side  of 
the  insured,  the  justice  of  the  average  clause  may  be  ex- 
plained thus:  Two  building  of  $10,000  each  are  erected  side 
by  side.  One  owner  decides  to  insure  for  $2,500  at  the  rate 
of  1  per  cent  and  pays  a  premium  of  $25  with  no  co-insurance 
required.     His  neighbor  insures  for  $5,000,  at  rate  of  1  per 


32  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

cent,  and  pays  $50  premium  with  no  co-insurance.  Fire  oc- 
curs and  damages  each  building  to  the  extent  of  $2,500,  which 
amount  each  owner  collects.  The  person  carrying  the  larger 
policy  has  been  discriminated  against  as  his  neighbor  collects 
100  per  cent  of  insurance  to  his  50  per  cent. 

The  80  per  cent  clause  is  used  where  the  actual  or  sound 
value  fluctuates;  the  100  per  cent,  clause  where  the  owner  al- 
ways knows  the  value  of  l;lie  property. 

Example,  showing  inequality  of  premium  income  and  loss 
payment,  with  and  without  co-insurance: 


Ins.                                              Co-in- 
Value.         carried.      Rate.    Premium,    surance. 

Ins. 

required 

Loss. 

Co. 

pays. 

$10000            $2000           1%           $20.           none 
10000              5000           1%            50.           80% 

$2000 
8000 

$2000 
2000 

$2000 
1250 

Example— 80  per  cent,  co-insurance  clause: 

Value  of           Ins.                 Ins.                De- 
property,      required,          carried.        ficiency 

Loss. 

Co. 
pays. 

$10000            $8000              $6000            $2000 

$4000 

$3000  or 

6/8ths 

Assured's 

proportion 

1000  or 

2/8ths 

Example — 80  per  cent,  clause  when  loss  exceeds  80  per  cent,  of  value :. 
Value  of  Ins.  Ins.  De-  Co. 

property,      required.  carried.        ficiency  Loss.  pays. 

$10000  $8000  $6000  $2000  $8500  $6000 

See  Appraisals;  see  Adjustments. 

100  Per  Cent.  Clause — Means  that  the  insured  agrees 
to  carry  insurance  equal  to  the  full  value  of  the  property  cov- 
ered. Similar  to  purchasing  commodities,  the  company  al- 
lows a  reduction  of  10  per  cent,  in  the  rate  where  the  clause 
is  attached  to  policies  as  an  incentive  to  buy  more  insurance. 
The  benefit  to  the  assured  also  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  can 
carry  20  per  cent,  more  insurance  with  but  \2y2  per  cent, 
more  premium  outlay  by  virtue  of  the  10  per  cent,  rate 
reduction.    Thus: 


Property 
value. 

Co-insurance. 

Ins. 
required. 

Rate. 

Premium, 

$5000 
5000 

80% 
100% 

$4000 
5000 

1% 
1%  -10 

$40.00 
45.00 

Example — 100  per  cent,  co-insurance  clause : 

Value  of          Ins.                Ins.                De-  Co. 

property,      required.          carried.        ficiency             Loss.  pays. 

$10000           $10000               $8000             $2000               $5000  $4000  or  8/lOths 

Assured    stands  balance  or  1000  or  2/lOths 


AVERAGE    RISK  33 

AVERAGE  RISK— The  basis  of  all  insurance,  fire,  life,  ma- 
rine, etc.,  is  based  on  the  law  of  average.  In  fire  underwrit- 
ing, the  "line"  is  based  on  the  average  inherent  physical  con- 
dition and  hazards  of  each  class  of  risk.  A  risk  below  aver- 
age is  one  wherein  the  conditions  surrounding  it  inject  haz- 
ards or  conditions  not  found  in  the  ordinary  risk,  and  is  above 
average  when  the  fire  hazard  is  lessened  by  the  absence  of 
any  substance,  process,  etc.,  which  may  be  classed  as  one  of 
the  inherent  hazards  of  the  class.     See  Line. 

AWNING  MANUFACTURING— Cutting,  sewing,  pipe 
cutting,  threading,  and  painting  are  practically  the  only 
hazards. 

AWNINGS — It  is  desirable,  from  a  company's  standpoint, 
to  leave  this  item  out  of  the  building  form,  as  many  fires  are 
caused  by  cigarettes  and  matches  carelessly  thrown  from 
windows  onto  the  awnings.  Forms  usually  limit  the  amount 
of  coverage  to  a  nominal  sum. 

AXLE  BOX— See  Journal  Box. 

AXLE  GREASE — Made  from  a  mixture  of  heavy  mineral 
oil  with  soaps  made  from  the  saponification  of  rosin  oil,  oleic 
acid,  stearic  acid  with  an  alkaline  metal  and  carbonate  of 
soda.  Cheap  grades  made  of  grease  graphite  and  heavy  pe- 
troleum oils.  No  boiling  is  required.  Hazards  are  steam- 
heated  kettles,  storage  of  grease  and  oily  condition  of 
premises. 

AZOTINE — A  richly  nitrogenous  product  soluble  in  water, 
obtained  by  treating  with  superheated  steam,  fabrics  contain- 
ing wool  and  cotton.     Used  as  a  fertilizer. 

Al  METAL  POLISH  is  not  an  approved  benzine  sub- 
stitute. 


B 

BACKING — The  rough  masonry  of  a  wall  faced  with  finer 
work. 

BACK  DRAUGHTS— The  phenomena  of  "back  draughts" 
is  the  dread  of  fire  fighters,  for  they  never  know  at  what  mo- 
ment they  may  be  caught  by  one  of  these  outbursts  of  flame. 
A  "back  draught"  is  really  an  explosion.  When  there  is  not 
a  sufficient  supply  of  air  to  produce  complete  combustion, 
the  combustible  will  give  off,  in  addition  to  the  products  of 
combustion,  a  gas  which  is  combustible.  This  gas,  when 
mixed  with  air,  becomes  either  a  combustible  or  an  ex- 
plosive, according  to  the  mixture.  When  the  adjustment  of 
air  and  gas  is  a  proper  one,  the  resultant  explosion  is  severe 
enough  to  wreck  the  building.  Such  a  "back  draught"  is 
usually  accompanied  by  a  burst  of  flame. 

BACK-FIRES  IN  GASOLENE  ENGINES  are  caused  by 
the  improper  "timing"  of  the  gasoline  engine  and  by  im- 
proper adjustment  of  carburetor.  A  flame  varying  in  length 
shoots  from  the  air  suction  of  the  carburetor.  The  distance 
of  the  air  suction  pipe  from  the  floor  and  from  oil  and  waste 
depends  upon  the  size  of  the  machine  and  whether  it  is  of 
horizontal  or  vertical  type.  See  Gasoline  Engines,  also  Auto- 
mobile Fires. 

BACK-PLASTERING— An  extra  coating  of  rough  brown 
plaster  on  lath  between  the  outer  sheathing  and  the  inner  or 
finish  plaster,  thus  securing  two  air  spaces. 

BAD  FIRE  RISKS— (Fireman's  Fund  Record.)  Nice  big 
farmhouses  from  which  the  family  have  moved  to  town,  leav- 
ing them  as  camps  for  hired  men,  without  watchful  wives  and 
mothers  to  smell  smoke  and  care  for  stoves,  lamps  and  can- 
dles. The  hired  men  are  careless,  absent  most  of  the  time, 
and  fire  occurs.     See  Moral  Hazard. 

BAFFLE  PLATE— A  metal  shield  placed  midway  be- 
tween the  burners  of  a  gas  stove  and  the  stand  on  which  it 

34 


BAKERIES  35 

rests.  Baffles  are  used  in  some  forms  of  condensers  to 
''baffle"  the  gas  or  liquid  during  a  distillation  process.  There 
are  other  similar  usages. 

BAGASSE  BURNER— The  furnace  in  which  ''bagasse"  or 
waste  sugar  cane  is  burned. 

BAGGING  FACTORIES  produce  considerable  lint,  and 
machinery  and  fixtures  are  usually  coated  with  it.  Main 
hazard  is  fibre  weaving.     As  a  class,  poor  fire  risks. 

BAKERIES — In  order  of  their  hazards — pie,  cake,  bread, 
biscuit,  cracker,  commission.  Considerable  grease  is  used  in 
pie  and  cake  bakeries,  hence  the  additional  hazard.  Commis- 
sion bakers  buy  and  sell  but  do  no  baking.  The  small 
bakery  is,  as  a  rule,  a  more  serious  fire  menace  than  the 
larger.  In  large  establishments  more  attention  is  given  to 
up-keep  and  care.  Brick  ovens  (wood,  coal  or  gas  heated), 
unless  built  under  sidewalk  or  under  fireproof  ceiling,  should 
have  plenty  of  space  between  top  of  oven  and  flooring  or 
roof  above,  and  set  on  concrete  or  earth  base.  Chimney 
should  conform  to  Underwriters'  rules.  Setting  of  confec- 
tioner's stove  important.  Gas  plate  for  heating  grease  for 
pans,  and  wood  or  metal  closet  in  which  is  set  a  gas  stove 
for  "proofing"  cakes,  are  also  found. 

Portable  gas  heated  ovens,  as  now  installed,  are  usually 
well  arranged,  but  may  be  set  too  near  combustible  parti- 
tions. The  floor  protection  should  be  the  same  as  for  large 
coal  ranges  or  furnaces.     See  Matzoth  Bakery. 

BAKERS'  SUPPLY  DEALERS— Stock  consists  of  baking 
soda,  lard,  spices,  sugar,  jellies,  shortening  greases,  flour, 
pie  fillings,  machinery,  pans  and  moulds  used  by  bakers. 
Making  pie  fillings  and  jellies,  using  essential  oils,  cologne 
spirits,  sesame  oil,  olive  oil,  bottling  of  extracts,  heating  of 
kettles   and   bottling  cotton-seed   oil   are   usual   hazards. 

BAKING  POWDER — Made  of  starch,  phosphate  of  soda, 
and  bicarbonate  of  soda.  In  manufacture,  hazards  are  sifting, 
mixing,  grinding,  drying,  paper  or  wood  box-making,  dust, 
and  label  printing. 

BALK,  a  large  beam  of  lumber. 

BALL-COCK — A  cistern  valve  at  one  end  of  lever,  at  the 
other   end   of  which   i^   ^  floating   ball.     The   ball   ris^s  ?ind 


36  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

falls  with  the  water  in  the  cistern  and  thus  opens  and  shuts 
the  valve. 

BALLOON  FRAME— One  of  the  poorest  methods  of  con- 
struction. The  frame  work  is  of  light  material,  neither  mor- 
tised or  tenoned,  continuous  spaces  between  studs  from  cel- 
lar to  garret  which  act  as  flues  for  a  fire.  "In  this  construc- 
tion, the  studs  as  well  as  the  corner  posts  are  carried  from 
the  sills  (i.e.,  the  flat  timber  which  lies  along  the  top  of 
the  foundation  wall)  continuously  to  the  wall  plate  (usually 
called  plate)  at  the  top  of  the  wall,  and  the  floor  beams  of 
the  second  and  third  stories  are  carried  by  pieces,  two  by 
six  inches,  called  "ribbons,"  spiked  securely  to  the  studs. 
They  are  stronger  if  let  into  the  posts  or  studs.  This  type 
of  construction  costs  somewhat  less  than  the  braced  frame. 
If  well  braced  with  long  struts  and  intcrties  are  strong 
enough  for  all  practical  purposes;  in  fact  it  forms  a  rigid 
structure."    (How  to  Build  a  Home.)     See  Braced  Frame. 

BALSAMS — Are  quite  inflammable  and  have  low  melting 
points. 

BANANA  OIL — Prepared  by  acting  upon  amyl  alcohol 
with  acetate  of  lime  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  distilling  same. 

BANANA  RIPENING  risks.  Usually  in  low,  dark  base- 
ments with  inferior  tenants.  Hazards  consist  of  an  abun- 
dance of  straw  or  salt  hay,  and  gas  radiators  with  rubber 
tubes   set  among  this  combustible  material. 

BANK  VAULTS  or  record  vaults.  The  nature  of  con- 
tents requires  massive  construction  to  resist  fire,  burglary, 
building  collapse  or  explosion.  Ceiling  to  be  4  inches  thicker 
than  walls,  which  should  be  built  with  air  space  between 
inner  and  outer  wall.  Doors,  usually  an  outer  and  inner  door 
with  a  sort  of  entry  between  which  forms  an  air  space.  Doors 
should  be  steel,  lined  with  6  inches  of  concrete  where  in 
pairs,  or  16  inches  thick  where  single.  All  material  should 
be  on  skids  or  shelves,  and  sills  raised  to  prevent  water 
damage.     See  Vaults. 

BARBER  SHOPS  conducted  by  natives  of  southern 
Europe  have  shown  a  surprisingly  high  loss  ratio.  The  equip- 
ment is  subjected  to  considerable  wear  and  tear,  and  there 
is   considerable   incentive   to   sell   old   fixtures    (especially   if 


BARRELS  37 

Upholstered  and  out  of  date)  to  insurance  companies.  The 
new  enamelled  fixtures  are  usually  bought  on  installments. 
As  attractiveness  is  a  valuable  stock  in  trade,  it  is  best  to 
decHne  unattractive  shops.     Few  companies  care  for  this  class. 

BARBER  SUPPLIES.  Stock  consists  of  perfumes,  cos- 
metics, soaps,  brushes,  cups.  Soap  making  in  a  small  way, 
making  and  bottling  perfumes.  Use  alcohol,  essential  oils, 
vegetable  oils  and  compounds  of  the  same.  Direct  heat  may 
be  used  in  heating  oils  or  emulsions. 

BARGE  BOARDS— Boards  nailed  against  the  outer  sur^ 
face  of  a  wall  along  the  slopes  of  a  gable  end  of  a  house 
to  hide  the  rafters  and  to  make  a  neat  appearing  job. 

BARIUM   CHLORATE— See   Chlorate. 

BARIUM  NITRATE  consists  of  a  heavy  white  crystal- 
line-salt. Classed  as  not  dangerous,  but  combustible  when 
mixed  with  carbonaceous  bodies. 

BARIUM  PEROXIDE,  barium  dioxide.  Incjmbustiblc 
alone,  but  when  mixed  with  organic  matter  is  dangerously 
inflammable. 

BARK,  the  exterior  covering  of  the  trunk  and  branches 
of  a  tree.  If  piled  near  tannery  or  mill  the  hazard  is  prac- 
tically that  of  the  factory.  If  near  railroad,  the  piles  are 
liable   to   be   set   on   fire   by   locomotive   sparks. 

BARLEY  in  bags  is  said  to  be  subject  to  spontaneous 
combustion. 

BARREL  (EMPTY)  STOCKS— Underwriters  should  write 
this  class  with  caution.  There  have  been  more  than  one  fire 
of  unexplained  origin  on  the  barrel  dealers'  premises,  as  many 
barrels  formerly  contained  oils,  acids,  chemicals,  etc.  Where 
barrels  formerly  contained  chlorate  of  potash  there  is  danger 
from  spontaneous  combustion  on  account  of  the  wood  being 
impregnated  with  this  substance. 

BARREL  STORAGE  and  re-coopering  shops.  Barrels, 
empty  or  containing  a  small  amount  of  alcohol,  high  proof 
liquors,  gasoline  or  benzine  if  left  in  yard  where  the  jays 
of  the  sun  strike  them  will  vaporize  and  cause  fire  if  arti- 
ficial light  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  bung  hole.  The 
height  of  piles  and  spacing  are  important.  Usually  frame 
construction.     Barrel   heater  important  hazard.     Also  paint- 


38  iN§l>ECtlON    AND    UNDERWRITING 

ing  heads  of  barrels  with  benzine-thinned  paint.  See  Coop- 
erages. 

BASEMENT  SHOPS— Where  work  is  of  a  manufacturing 
nature  it  is  not,  as  a  general  rule,  considered  a  desirable 
risk.  The  lack  of  floor  space  brings  about  untidiness  and 
make-shift  heating  devices.  Swinging  gas  brackets  frequently 
found.     Fires  in  this  class  are  very  numerous. 

BATH  HOUSES— Those  located  at  seashore  resorts 
usually  are  of  light  frame  construction  and  large  area.  Un- 
safe gas  brackets  and  temporary  heating  apparatus  may  be 
found.  As  they  are  only  "season"  risks,  considerable  rub- 
bish is  liable  to  collect  in  open  space  under  the  flooring. 
Watchmen  in  winter  time  liable  to  force  the  coal  stove  ana 
cause  overheating  of  smoke  pipe  or  stove.  Cigarette  fall- 
ing through  cracks  or  space  between  floor  boards  is  a  com- 
mon occurrence.     The  fire  risk  is  considered  poor. 

BATTEN  DOORS— See  Fire  Doors. 

BATTENS,  pieces  of  boards  or  scantling  a  few  inches 
wide,   used  to  hold  several  lengths  together. 

BATTER — The  sloping  backward  of  a  face  of  masonry. 

BATTERY  OF  BOILERS— A  group  of  boilers  delivering 
steam  into  a  main  pipe. 

BATTERIES— Dry  cell.  Cells  filled  with  salamoniac, 
chloride  of  manganese,  magnesium.  Sealed  with  parafinc, 
topped  with  pitch.  May  have  celluloid  cells  sealed  with 
celluloid  cement. 

BATTERIES— Semi-dry  as  used  in  launches.  The  body 
or  cell  is  made  of  a  dark,  sandy  mixture,  finely  divided,  com- 
posed of  manganese,  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  graphite,  retort 
carbons,  sodium,  silicates  and  ores,  mixed  and  pressed  in 
cylindrical  forms.  This  is  called  ''depolarizing"  mixture. 
Forms  then  put  in  hollow  zinc  holder  which  has  been  .treated 
with  muriatic  acid  and  mercury,  and  a  thin  coating  of  pitch 
put  in  bottom  of  cylinder.  Between  the  depolarizing  filling 
and  the  zinc  shell  is  a  small  space  filled  with  "exciting" 
fluid  made  of  ammonia  chloride,  zinc  and  calcium  chlorides, 
calcium  oxide,  glucose,  starch  and  rye  flour.  Paraffine  coat- 
ing makes  the  cell  air  tight.  Two  glass  tubes  are  inserted, 
and   remaining   space   filled   with    sawdust,   then   sealed   with 


BATTERIES  39 

pitch.  The  finished  battery  is  dipped  in  asphaltum  or  lacquer 
and  paper  wrapper  glued  on.  Hazard  of  pitch  and  wax  heat- 
ing, excelsior  and  sawdust  storage,  dip  process  lacquering, 
benzine  for  thinning  asphaltum,  glue  heating,  handling  of 
chemicals,  oily  floors. 

BATTERIES  (Storage)— The  filling  composition  may  con- 
tain ether,  amyl  acetate,  alcohol  and  chlorates.  Celluloid 
cells  and  celluloid  cement,  lead  melting  furnaces  and  blow 
pipe   work  are   chief  hazards. 

BATTING  DROSS  consists  of  fibre  and  resin  formed  by 
filtration  of  melted  resin  through  raw  cotton.  Not  subject 
to  spontaneous  combustion.     Not  classed  as  inflammable. 

BAY  CONSTRUCTION  is  the  term  used  to  denote  the 
absence  of  the  ordinary  small-sized  beams  in  floor  construc- 
tion and  is  the  space  representing,  the  span  between  rows  of 
parallel  beams  or  girders.  Bays  are  sometimes  panels,  some- 
times spans.  Iri  mill  construction  a  bay  is  the  distance  be- 
tween posts. 

BEAM — Iron,  wood,  or  other  suitable  substance.  Usually 
rests  on  girders  at  right  angles,  or  on  posts.  Used  to  sup- 
port floor  loads  or  roof. 

BEANS,  if  wet,  and  left  in  bags,  will  milldew  and  may  be 
confiscated  by   Health   Department. 

BEARING — The  points  of  support  of  a  beam,  shaft,  axle. 
The  "rest"  or  the  block  on  which  or  against  which  a  jour- 
nal turns. 

BEARING  WALL— A  wall  which  supports  floor  or  roof 
beams  or  girders. 

BED  MOULDINGS,  ornamental  mouldings  on  the  lower 
face  of  a  projecting  cornice. 

BED  PLATE— A  large  plate  of  iron  laid  as  a  foundation 
for  something  to  rest  on. 

BEDSPRING  MANUFACTURING  —  Metal  -  working 
hazard  with  dip  process  painting,  lacquering  or  bronzing. 

BEES- WAX— A  solid  wax  of  which  the  cells  of  the  honey 
comb  are  made.     Melting  point,   143-147  deg.  F. 

BEET  VARNISH— Made  from  red  beets  soaked  in  spirits 
of  wine. 


40  INSPECTION    AND     UNDERWRITING 

BELL-METAL — Copper  and  tin  melted  together.  See 
Bronze. 

BELT  BOXES,  especially  in  cotton  mills  should  be  kept 
scrupulously  clean.  Often  found  filled  with  dust  and  flyings 
of  cotton  or  wool,  covering  everything  not  in  rapid  motion. 

BELT  HOLES  should  be  boxed,  i.e.,  enclosed  at  each 
floor  to  provide  a  minimum  floor  opening.     See  Boxing. 

BELT  MANUFACTURING— Many  use  a  water-proof 
cement  composed  of  acetone  and  rubber  cement  with  cellu^ 
loid  and  carbon  bisulphide,  or  Viscol. 

BELTING  (COTTON)— Is  made  of  woven  cotton,  and 
waterproofed.  If  the  belting  is  left  in  water  for  a  few  hours 
the  water  will  dissolve  the  dressing  and  render  the  belting 
worthkss.  After  being  wet,  the  belt  will  not  run  true  on 
pulleys,  hence  is  unsalable. 

BENTINE  SPIRITS,  approved  benzine  substitute. 
Flashes  at   103  deg.  F. 

BENZENE,  obtained  by  fractional  distillation  from  coal 
tar.  Colorless,  volatile,  inflammable.  Solvent  for  fats  and 
gums.  Derivatives  used  in  medicines  and  dyestuflFs.  See 
benzole. 

BENZIDINE,  made  from  nitro-benzine,  alkali  solution  and 
zinc  dust.  Similar  to  making  sulphonic-acid.  Used  in  dye- 
making. 

BENZINE— Obtained  by  fractional  distillation  from 
petroleum.  Colorless,  inflammable,  volatile,  consisting  of 
various  hydro-carbons.     Flash  point  from  about  70-84  deg.  F. 

BENZINE  SUBSTITUTES— See  under  Trade  Names. 

BENZOATE  OF  SODA— Toluol  heated  in  Mott  kettle, 
then  mixed  with  chlorine  gas,  making  benzol  chloride,  then 
nitrated.  The  crystals  are  then  cleaned  and  dried.  The  re- 
maining solution  is  treated  with  soda  ash  to  complete  action. 

BENZOLE — Flash  point  14  deg.  F.  Properties  same  as 
benzene.     Should  be  stored  only  in  steel  drums. 

BENZOYL-CHLORIDE  consists  of  a  clear  colorless 
liquid.     Not  combustible,  not  classed  as  inflammable. 

BENZOL-TRINITRO,  high  explosive. 

BERENCO  LACQUER  is  non-explosive.  .  Alcohol  is  used 
as  a  thinner. 


BESSEMER   STEEL 


41 


3TANPARPS 

fO/Z^  THIS   OS£  O/r 

and  oi^er  yo/at//e  o/jy, 

trhtcA  emit  <t^    if^/mntmmU*   l^e^tr- 


BESSEMER  STEEL— Sometimes  called  Ingot  Iron.  Pro- 
duced from  cast  iron  by  blowing  air  through  it  while  in  a 
molten  state.  This  process  is  repeated  until  all  the  carbon 
is  removed.  The  required  degree  of  carburization  is  pro- 
duced by  adding  a  proportion  of  iron  containing  a  known 
percentage  of  carbon  and  manganese.  The  Basis  Bessemer 
process,  called  acid  Bessemer  process  is  one  where  the  sul- 
phur   and    phosphorus    cannot    be    removed    except    by    em- 


42  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

ploying  a  converter  lined  with  basic  material  in  which  other 
varieties  of  inon  can  be  used.  Bessemer  steel  can  be  pro- 
duced in  various  degrees  of  hardness,  but  it  cannot  be  tem- 
pered or  hardened  subsequently.  It  has  a  rather  lower  ten- 
sile strength  than  other  mild  steels.  A  Bessemer  converter 
is  a  cylindrical  iron  vessel  lined  with  a  refractory  material 
in  which  molten  pig  iron  is  submitted  to  the  oxidizing  action 
of  a  stream  of  air. 

BETA-NAPHTHA— See  Sublime  Beta-Naphtha. 

BETON,  sometimes  called  artificial  stone.  Made  of  hy- 
draulic cement  with  broken  stone,  broken  bricks,  gravel,  etc. 

BEVEL — The  slope  formed  by  trimming  away  the  sharp 
edge,  as  of  a  board. 

BEVEL-GEAR,  cog-wheels  with  teeth  so  formed  that  the 
wheels  can  work  into  each  other  at  an  angle. 

BEVELLED,  or  self-releasing,  applied  to  timbers  on 
masonry  walls  which  have  the  bevelled  end  resting  on  the 
wall  in  such  a  manner  that  when  the  timber  is  ruptured  it 
can  fall  out  or  release  itself  without  tearing  out  part  of  the 
wall. 

BICARBONATE  OF  SODA,  commonly  known  as  baking 
soda.  Composed  of  one  part  each  of  sodium,  hydrogen,  and 
carbon  and  three  parts  of  oxygen. 

BICHLORIDE  OF  TIN— This  liquid  is  obtained  by  heat- 
ing metallic  tin  with  chloride  of  mercury,  and  condensing 
the  fumes  produced,  or  by  passing  a  current  of  dry  chlorine 
over  melted  tin,  and  condensing  the  resulting  chloride.  When 
mixed,  with  water,  great  heat  is  generated.     Used  by  dyers. 

BICHROMATE  OF  POTASH— See  Bichromate  of  Soda. 

BICHROMATE  OF  SODA  and  bichromate  of  potash  are 
yellow  crystalline  salts  which  act  as  oxidizing  agents.  Not 
considered  hazardous  in  themselves. 

BICYCLE  AND  MOTORCYCLE  repair  shops.  Hand  and 
power  shop  work.  Motorcycles  drained  or  filled  in  build- 
ing. Vulcanizing.  Gasoline  storage.  Stock  of  accessories 
including  celluloid  windshields.  Have  poor  fire  record.  See 
Motor  Cycle. 

BINDER — A  temporary  contract  between  the  insured  and 
the  insurer.    Issued  pending  the  issuance  of  a  policy.     On  it 


BLANKET    l^OLlClES  43 

is  written  the  name  of  the  insured,  the  description  of  prop- 
erty covered,  location,  mortgage,  amount,  term  for  which 
the  policy  is  to  be  written,  and  rate.  Issued  for  fifteen-day 
period  as  a  rule  and  is  renewable;  cancelled  in  same  man- 
ner as  a  policy.     See  Application  for  Insurance. 

BINITRO-TOLUOL— A  yellow  crystalline  solid  (not  ex- 
plosive or  dangerously  inflammable).  Resembles  trinitoluol 
which   is   highly   explosive. 

BIRD  AND  ANIMAL  STORES— Live  animals  and  birds 
easily  ^asphyxiated  by  smoke.  Fixtures,  furniture  and  stock 
of  supplies,  however,  classed  as  good  risks.  Light  repair 
shop  work. 

BISULPHIDE   OF  CARBON— See   Carbon   Bisulphide. 

BISULPHIDE  OF  IRON  is  iron  pyrites. 

BLACK  DAMP  is  choke  damp. 

BLACK  DYED  GOODS  are  apt  to  cause  spontaneous 
combustion. 

BLACK  JAPAN — A  varnish  made  with  tar  and  alcohol, 
or  lamp-black  and  resins. 

BLACK  PAINT — A  compound  used  by  tanners.  Contains 
pyroxylin  or  gun  cotton  dissolved  in  amyl  acetate.  Flash 
point  35  deg.  F. 

BLACK  POWDER— Explosive,  75  per  cent,  saltpetre,  10 
per  cent,   sulphur,   15   per  cent,   charcoal. 

BLACKSMITHS— Usually  locate  in  buildings  of  inferior 
construction.  Note  setting  of  forges  and  anvils,  tire  fur- 
naces and  painting. 

BLANK  RATING,  when  the  financial  rating  of  a  firm  oi 
individual  does  not  appear  in  any  of  the  mercantile  rating 
books,  it  is  usually  a  good  tip  to  keep  off  the  line.  See  Trade 
Reports;  also  Mercantile  Reports. 

BLANK  WALL — A  wall  without  openings. 

BLANKET  FORM — A  form  covering  building,  machinery 
and   stock  under  one  item. 

BLANKET  POLICIES  may  cover  the  buildings  or  con- 
tents of  one,  two  or  any  number  of  buildings.  If  communi- 
cating, they  can  be  written  with  the  80  per  cent,  and  dis- 
tribution clause;  if  not  communicating,  the  100  per  cent, 
clause  must  be  used  without  any  allowance  for  same.     These 


44  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

policies  must  be  written  cautiously  and  the  liability  figured 
as  though  the  entire  amount  covered  in  each  building  under 
a  blanket  form.    See  Schedule;  also  Distribution  Clause. 

BLASTING  CAPS  consist  of  small  hollow  copper  cylin- 
ders containing  fulminate  of  mercury,  or  a  mixture  of  ful- 
minate of  mercury  and  potassium  chlorate.     Very  dangerous. 

BLASTING  GELATINE  is  a  mixture  of  nitroglycerine 
and  gun  cotton.     Pow^erful  explosive. 

BLAUGAS  LIGHTING  SYSTEM— This  is  a  gas  system 
for  house  lighting  and  heating,  using  liquified  hydrocarbon 
gas  made  from  petroleum  distillate.  (Colorless,  inflammable, 
and  made  by  passing  mineral  oil  into  highly  heated  retorts, 
the  oil  being  decomposed,  forming  a  gaseous  product.)  The 
gas  is  stored  under  high  pressure  (900  lbs.  per  sq.  inch)  in 
steel  cylinders,  and  is  expanded  into  the  house  piping  through 
suitable  reducing  and  regulating  valves.  The  high-pressure 
cylinders,  together  with  reducing  and  regulating  valves,  are 
contained  in  a  locked  and  ventilated  metal  box. 

The  system  is  arranged  to  run  automatically  with  small 
expansion  tanks  in  this  box,  or  non-automatically  with  larger 
expansion  tanks  which  are  buried  or  installed  in  well  venti- 
lated  brick   or   concrete   houses   when   near   buildings. 

The  gas  itself,  after  introduction  into  the  house  piping, 
embodies  about  the  same  hazards  as  ordinary  city  gas,  but 
under  somewhat  higher  pressure  (about  12  inches  water  col- 
umn). The  apparatus  is  well  constructed  and  is  safeguarded 
as  far  as  appears  to  be  practicable  at  the  present  time.  The 
high  pressure  apparatus  is  to  be  installed  outside  of  build- 
ings, well  removed  from  all  openings  where  escaping  gas 
may  enter  or  accumulate.     (Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.) 

BLEACH,  DYE  AND  PRINT  WORKS— Raw  stock  in- 
cludes cotton  goods  to  be  worked,  acids,  chlorate  of  potash, 
chlorate  of  soda,  acetate  of  iron,  tin  oxalite,  sodium  sul- 
phate, sumac,  chloride  of  lime,  bisulphide  of  soda,  acetate  of 
chrome,  caustic  soda,  starch,  aniline  and  logwood  dyes, 
aniline  oils  and  salts.  Process,  dyeing,  drying,  singeing,  age- 
ing, calendering,  printing,  etching  and  engraving  rolls,  fold* 
ing  and  packing.  Poor  fire  record.  Benzine  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  mordant  in  calico  printing. 


BLEACHING    ROOMS  45 

The  causes  of  fire  are  attributed  to  lighting,  power,  singe- 
ing, dye  mixing,  printing,  steaming,  ageing,  napping,  and 
spontaneous   ignition   of  freshly-dyed   goods. 

BLEACHING  POWDER— See  chloride  of  lime.  A  heavy 
white  powder  composed  chiefly  of  calcium  hypochloride 
(known  also  as  chloride  of  lime).  It  gives  oflf  chlorine  gas 
when  heated  or  mixed  with  acids.  Not  classed  as  inflam- 
mable. 

BLEACHING  ROOMS  (sulphur)  in  hat  factories 
should  be  constructed  entirely  of  incombustible  material  as 
follows:  The  side  walls  and  ceilings  to  be  wire  lath  and 
plaster  (preferably  on  iron  supports).  If,  however,  the  room 
is  wood  enclosed,  the  same  may  be  lined,  including  the  ceil- 
ing, with  plaster  boards  or  similar  equivalent  construction  at 
least  3^-inch  thick  secured  by  roofing  nails,  the  nail  heads 
to  be  covered  and  all  joints  between  the  blocks  filled  in  with 
asbestos  cement.  The  floor  to  have  a  course  of  bricks  laid 
in  cement  throughout  and  an  additional  similar  course  di- 
rectly underneath  the  sulphur  pot.  When  a  vent  pipe  is 
used,  the  same  is  to  be  constructed  of  brick  or  terra  cotta 
with  a  damper  to  be  controlled  from  the  outside  of  the  room. 
Metallic  substances  should  not  be  employed  on  account  of 
corrosion.     See  Hats,  Straw. 

BLENDING — Also  known  as  compounding,  is  mixing 
liquor  to  obtain  a  desired  blend.  No  material  hazard.  See 
Liquors. 

BLIND  ATTIC— See  Attic. 

BLISTER  STEEL— See  Cast  Steel. 

BLOCK  LINES— Are  the  "lines"  which  in  the  aggregate 
represent  the  amount  of  liability  which  a  company  has  on  a 
city  block  of  buildings.     See  Line. 

BLOCKING  PRESS— A  gas  or  steam-heated  press  under 
pressure  used  in  shaping  hats. 

BLOODED  LIVESTOCK  of  fancy  value  should  not  be 
written  until  the  company  is  in  possession  of  all  the  facts 
of  physical  and  moral  hazard.  Considerable  value  is  wrapped 
up  in  a  blooded  animal.  A  slight  accident  will  so  depreciate 
an  animal's  worth  that  there  may  be  incentive  to  destroy  the 
animal  by  fire  and  collect  the  insurance.     See  Lightning. 


nUTOMA  TfC 


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Copyrighted. 


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48  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

BLOW  TORCHES— Should  be  on  incombustible  stands. 
See  Brazers. 

BLOWER  SYSTEMS  for  heating  or  ventilating  consist 
of  a  number  of  galvanized  iron  ducts  through  which  air  is 
blown  for  heat,  or  from  which  impure  or  heated  air  is  sucked 
for  ventilation.  In  each  system,  the  openings  in  the  ducts 
are  covered  with  wire  screening.  Motor-driven  fans  are 
usually  employed.  A  clearance  of  1  inch  from  combustible 
material  is  recommended,  and  ducts  should  not  be  connected 
to  flues  or  stacks  used  for  any  other  purposes;  neither  should 
they  pierce  fire  walls  unless  an  automatic  drop  door  is  in- 
stalled where  passing  through.  Where  piercing  floors,  the 
ducts  should  be  protected  by  4-inch  tile  or  its  equivalent. 
The  latter  two  features  (piercing  walls  or  floors)  reduce  the 
efficiency  of  the  fire  wall  or  floor,  as  fire,  once  entering  the 
flue,  travels  the  entire  system  unless  stopped  by  standard 
automatic  dampers  or  doors. 

BLOWERS  FOR  REFUSE  such  as  sawdust,  shavings  or 
buffing  dust  from  buff  wheels  operate  as  noted.  The  ducts 
are  cylindrical  and  have  a  hood  which  fits  quite  close  to  the 
machinery  to  allow  a  larger  opening  for  the  refuse  to  enter 
the  duct  or  pipe.  As  these  are  used  in  factories,  they  are 
liable  to  breakage  and  disruption  through  carelessness  or  vi- 
bration, and  therefore  should  be  substantially  constructed. 
The  refuse  is  drawn  through  a  cyclone  or  separator  where 
the  fine  dust  is  allowed  to  free  itself,  the  heavy  material 
going  to  a  vault  or  other  receptacle.  Dust  from  buff  wheels 
and  other  light  material  should  pass  through  a  water  sprayer 
or  be  deposited  in  a  receptacle  partly  filled  with  water  to 
keep  down  the  percentage  of  dust.  All  blower  systems 
should  have  suitable  clean-out  doors,  fans  and  motor  bear- 
ings easily  accessible  and  be  kept  clean  to  prevent  clogging  ' 
and  friction.  Fires  have  been  caused  by  exhaust  apparatus 
becoming  overheated.  See  Shavings  Vaults;  also  Buff  Wheels 
and  Direct  Feed  to  Boilers. 

BLOWN  OILS  are  made  by  oxidizing  rape,  cotton  seed, 
linseed  and  lard  oils.     Used  for  lubricating  purposes. 

BLUE  BILLY  or  pyrites  cinder  is  a  residue  from  burn- 
ing pyrites  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid. 


SOILERS  49 

BLUE  PRINT  making  is  accomplished  by  what  is  known 
as  a  printing  machine  equipped  with  electric  light  and  gas 
heat.  The  paper  is  received  in  rolls,  passed  through  a  sen^ 
sitizing  solution,  then  over  a  roller-frame  to  a  dry  room.  Usfc 
citric  and  oxalic  acids  in  crj^stal  form,  soda  ash,  aqua  am- 
monia, sulphuric  acid,  nitric  acid.  Dry  room  hazard.  Arc 
lamps. 

BLUE  VITRIOL  is  sulphate  of  copper. 

BLUEING — Made  from  burnt  umber,  sulphur,  soda,  clay 
and  a  liquid  adhesive  resembling  molasses. 

BOARDING-HOUSES  where  meals  are  served  are  con- 
sidered somewhat  better  fire  risks  than  furnished  room 
houses.  The  change  of  patrons  is  not  so  frequent.  Inspec- 
tion should  be  made  before  line  is  written.  See  Furnished 
Rooms;  also  Lodging  Houses. 

BOILED  OIL  is  made  by  heating  linseed  oil.  Used  in 
paint,  varnish  and  oilcloth  manufacturing. 

BOILER  EXPLOSION— See  Boiler. 

BOILERS,  brick  set,  are  those  which  are  enclosed  in  brick- 
work covering  the  outside  of  the  boiler,  and  usually  having 
a   concrete   or  brick  top. 

An  asbestos-clad  boiler  is  one  which  is  wrapped  in  as- 
bestos which  is  applied  as  a  cement,  about  2  to  4  inches  in 
thickness. 

Boilers,  portable.  All  combustible  floors  and  beams  under 
and  not  less  than  3  feet  in  front  of  and  1  foot  on  side  of  all 
portable  boilers  shall  be  protected  by  a  brick  foundation  of 
two  courses  of  brick.     See  Battery  of  Boilers. 

For  installation  of  temporary  kerosene  oil  burners,  sec 
Kerosene  Burners. 

BOILER— Does  the  Boiler  or  the  Water  Explode? 

Water  in  an  open  kettle  boils  at  212  deg.  F.  The  Fidelity 
and  Casualty  Bulletin  says  that  when  the  surface  of  boiling 
water  is  subject  to  atmospheric  pressure  or  zero  gauge 
pressure  its  temperature  is  212  deg.  F 

When  the  gauge  pressure  is   150  lbs.  per  square  inch  the 
temperature    of    the    water    is    350    deg.    F.,    and    if   all    the 
inlets  and  outlets  to  the  boiler  be  closed,  the  water  will  not  ' 
boil,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  its  temperature  and  pres- 


50  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

sure  are  many  times  greater  than  the  temperature  and  pres- 
sure of  boiling  water. 

If,  however,  a  valve  be  opened,  the  water  immediately  be- 
gins  to  boil,  even  though  the  furnace  heat  has  been  shut 
off.  But  when  all  of  the  inlets  and  outlets  are  closed  the 
highly-heated  water  in  the  boiler  is  in  fact  nothing  more  nor 
less  than  liquefied  steam  gas.  It  remains  in  the  liquid  state  by 
reason  of  the  high  pressure  to  which  its  surface  is  subjected. 

If,  however,  suddenly  there  be  made  a  large  opening  abov^ 
the  water  level,  as  for  example  when  a  large  steam  pipe  or 
header  is  ruptured,  the  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
being  suddenly  relieved  permits  the  liquefied  steam  gas  com- 
monly thought  of  as  hot  water  to  violently  explode  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  if  it  were  nitroglycerine. 

The  result  is  commonly  termed  a  boiler  explosion.  It  is 
in  fact  an  explosion  of  liquefied  steam  gas.  That  is  to  say, 
it  is  an  explosion  of  a  large  body  of  water  at  high  tempera- 
ture. It  is  no  wonder,  then,  that  boiler  explosions  are  often 
as  disastrous  as  dynamite  explosions. 

BOILER  SETTING— A  small  upright  heating  boiler  has 
been  known  to  set  fire  to  woodwork  under  its  8-inch  con- 
crete base  (laid  without  air  space).  All  solid  materials  such 
as  brick,  concrete  or  asbestos  have  a  comparatively  high 
heat  conductivity.  Porous  material  such  as  terra-cotta  tile 
or  a  liberal  air  space  permitting  a  circulation  of  air  is  a  bet- 
ter insulation  against  heat  than  solid  matter. 

BOILER  SMOKE  PIPE  against  the  under  side  of  an  8- 
inch  concrete  floor  arch  has  been  known  to  ignite  stock  on 
the  floor.  Dust  and  wood  chips  on  top  of  boilers  are  ignited 
by  radiated  heat. 

BOLL  WEEVIL — An  insect  pest  whose  annual  ravages 
cause  a  loss  of  400,000  bales  of  cotton  in  the  South.  The 
annual  loss  in  Texas  alone  as  a  result  of  the  weevil's  depre- 
dations is  placed  at  $2,700,000.  Thus  far  the  only  successful 
means  of  control  has  been  the  burning  of  dead  cotton  stalks 
in  the  Fall,  thereby  destroying  in  a  large  measure  the  hiber- 
nating millions  that  would  develop  into  active  parasites  dur- 
ing the  coming  season.  These  parasites  have  injected  a 
moral  hazard  into  cotton  mills,  as  the  small  crop  means  less 
work  and  the   corresponding   shutting   down   of   the   plant. 


I 


BOOKBINDERS'   BOARD  51 

BOLSTER — A  timber  or  a  thick  iron  plate  placed  between 
the  ends  of  a  bridge  and  its  seat  on  an  abutment. 

BOMBS — Whistling   bombs   contain   potassium   picrate. 

BONFIRES,  especially  in  open  city  lots,  have  caused  many 
losses  by  flying  brands  and  grass  fires. 

BOND,  the  disposing  of  brick-work  or  blocks  of  stone  so 
as  to  form  the  whole  into  a  firm  structure  by  the  judicious 
overlapping  of  each  other  so  as  to  break  joint. 

BOND  AND  CAP  STONES,  especially  if  carrying  heavy 
weights  should  be  insulated  with  concrete,  terra  cotta  or 
brick  2  to  4  inches  in  thickness.  Heat  and  the  application 
of  cold  water  under  pressure  causes  the  stones  to  crack  and 
may  cause  the  building  to  collapse. 

BONDED  WALL— See  Bond. 

BONDED  WAREHOUSE— See  Warehouse. 

BONE  BLACK — Made  from  the  poorer  grade  of  bones. 
Subject  to  combustion  in  the  presence  of  moisture. 

BOOKBINDERS— Process  consists  of  cutting,  gluing, 
embossing,  printing  and  binding  paper.  Hazards  of  glue 
pots,  gas-heated  embossing  presses,  paper  scraps,  printing 
presses.    See  Printers. 

BOOKBINDERS'  BOARD  MANUFACTURING— The 
raw  stock  consists  of  paper,  rags,  wood  pulp  and  fibre.  The 
process  is  sorting,  cutting,  shaking  and  finishing.  Machin- 
ery used  are  calenders  (steam-heated),  paper-making  ma- 
chines, steam  dryers,  rag  cutters,  beaters,  boiling  kettles. 
Crude  oil  is  used  to  reduce  foam  in  beaters.  Similar  to 
paper-making. 

BOOKTILE— Tiling,  wide,  flat,  thin  and  shaped  like  a 
book.  Laid  so  that  the  convex  end  of  one  sets  into  the  con- 
cave end  of  the  next.  Used  in  roof  construction  instead  of 
heavy  tile  or  concrete  to  lessen  the  weight. 

BOOKS — If  new,  offer  good  insurance;  if  old,  the  con- 
trary. When  piled  on  shelves,  water  damages  the  upper  tier 
as  a  rule  and  fire  burns  the  outer  edge. 

BOOSTING — Dressing  stone  with  a  broad  chisel  called  a 
"booster"  and  a  mallet.  The  booster  gives  a  smooth  sur- 
face after  the  use  of  the  "point,"  or  other  narrow  chisel. 


52  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

BOOT  AND  SHOE  FACTORIES— See  Shoe  Factories. 

BOOT  DRESSING— See  Shoe  Factories. 

BOOT  BLACK  AND  HAT  CLEANERS— Ownership 
largely  a  foreign  element.  Use  sulphur  for  bleaching  straw  hats, 
benzine  for  cleaning  hats,  gas-heated  irons  and  blocking  irons. 

BORE — The  inner  diameter  of  a  hollow  cylinder. 

BOTTLERS  of  soft  drinks  with  flavoring  extract-making. 
Work  consists  of  washing,  labeling  and  filling  bottles.  Mak- 
ing flavoring  from  fruits  and  herbs  and  essential  oils,  using 
steam-heated  kettles  and  confectioners'  stoves.  Boiler.  Ex- 
celsior for  packing  bottles  for  shipment.  Sealing  bottles  with 
parafline.     See  Mineral  Waters. 

BOTTLE-STOPPERS,  called  "crowns,"  are  made  of  sheet 
metal  stamped  out  and  edges  crimped,  then  lined  with  waxed 
paper  and  cork  disk.  The  wax  is  a  mixture  of  parafline  and 
rosin,  heated  by  gas  or  steam.  Paper  usually  waxed  on  the 
premises  by  drawing  the  paper  strip  through  the  melted 
wax.  The  machines  used  are  automatic,  rotating  and  gas- 
heated,  and  crimp,  line  and  press  the  crown  in  one  operation. 
Metal  working  hazard.  Varnishing  tops.  The  cork  disks  are 
bought   ready-made  for  use.     See   Cork. 

BOULINIKON,  a  kind  of  floor  cloth  like  linoleum.  Simi^ 
lar  process  to  linoleum-making,  but  made  from  buffalo  hide, 

BOWLING  ALLEYS,  if  established  and  run  by  respon^ 
sible  people,  are  considered  good  insurance  as  practically  no 
stock  is  carried.  Use  wax  or  floor  mops  for  dressing  floors. 
Basement  alleys  suffer  greater  damage  than  those  above  grade, 
as  water  will  cause  the  alleys  to  warp,  necessitating  relaying. 

BOX-BOARD  LINING  manufacturing.  The  process  con- 
sists of  cutting  the  boards  and  running  them  through  a  press 
similar  in  appearance  to  a  cylinder  press  which  has  a  gravity 
feed  paste-pot  attachment  which  drops  the  paste  into  a 
trough,  and  a  reel  of  thin  paper  is  automatically  pasted  on 
the  cardboard.  Used  in  place  of  paper  boxes.  Hazards  simi- 
lar to  paper  box  making. 

BOX  GIRDER — A  type  of  steel  or  wrought-iron  girder 
having  two  vertical  webs  and  a  flange  at  top  and  bottom 
connecting  them. 

BOXED  STAIRS— See  Stairs. 


BRANCH   OFFICE    RISK  53 

BOXING — Applied  to  belt  openings  when  same  are  en- 
closed at  floors  to  lessen  the  size  of  draft  opening.  Cornices 
are  cut  off  for  same  reason. 

BRACE-AND-INCLINED  BEAM— A  bar  or  strut  for 
sustaining  compression. 

BRACED  FRAME— Girts  or  beams  carry  the  floor  beams 
of  the  floors  above  the  first,  and  are  framed  into  the  cor- 
ner posts  (which  should  extend  to  the  wall  plates),  those 
supporting  the  end  of  the  beams  dropped  to  a  secure  level 
with  the  side  girts  (for  this  reason  they  are  called  drop  girts). 
On  these  girts  the  studs  of  the  outer  walls  and  partitions  are 
framed,  so  that  each  story  has  a  separate  set  of  'studs.  At  all 
angles  also  there  are  angle  braces  tending  to  strengthen  the 
structure.     (How  to  Build  a  Home.)     See  Balloon  Frame. 

BRACKET  CHIMNEY— A  chimney  which  rests  on  a  wall 
bracket  instead  of  being  built  up  from  the  ground.  An  in- 
creased danger  when  bracket  is  of  wood.  See  also  Corbel 
and  Wall  Chimney. 

BRAID  AND  DRESS  TRIMMING  MANUFACTURING 
— Hazards  are  storage  of  raw  materials,  dyeing,  drying,  braid 
and  weave  machines,  winders  and  spoolers,  sewing  machines, 
gas  heated  straw  machines  and  crimpers,  packing  and  label- 
ing.    See  also  Embroideries. 

BRAKE — A  long  machine  used  by  tinsmiths  to  bend  the 
sheet  metal  into  proper  shape. 

BRAMWELL  FEED,  an  automatic  attachment  for  feeding 
carding  machines.  It  consists  of  a  small  pin  for  holding 
the  stock  which  is  picked  up  by  a  slowly  moving  apron  and 
usually  has  a  hood  over  the  feed.  The  hoods  should  be 
removed  or  have  a  sprinkler  head  placed  under  the  same. 
Some  rating  bureaus  charge  an  extra  rate  for  machines 
equipped  with  Bramwell  feeds.     See  Carding  Machines. 

BRANCH  OFFICE  RISK— Any  risk  permitted  to  be  writ- 
ten by  the  Branch  Oflices,  the  class  consisting  of  dwellings, 
stores  and  dwellings  and  minimum  rated  stocks.  In  other 
words,  this  class,  owing  to  the  light  character,  need  not  be 
rated  except  for  area  or  special  conditions.  Branch  offices 
write  only  the  so-called  preferred  business,  and  not  manu- 
facturing  risks   or  special   hazards.     See   Risk. 


54  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

BRANCH  STORES— Sometimes  goods  are  removed  back 
and  forth  from  main  store  to  branches.  Such  stocks  should 
be  carefully  investigated.  Fires  have  a  habit  of  starting  in 
branch  stores  which  are  filled  v^ith  out-of-season  or  shop- 
v^orn  goods  shipped  from  main  stores,  especially  if  located 
in  another  town.     See  Mercantile  Reports;  also  Trade  Reports. 

BRANDY — Made  by  distilling  fermented  fruit  juices. 
Whiskey  compounds  are  used  as  substitutes.    See  Distilleries. 

BRASS — Composed  of  copper  and  zinc. 

BRAZE — To  unite  pieces  of  iron,  copper  or  brass  by  means 
of  a  hard  solder  called  spelter  solder.     See  Weld. 

BRAZERS  (or  blow  torches)  used  in  metal-working  es- 
tablishments, consist  of  stout,  flexible  tubes,  carrying  gas 
from  a  supply  pipe  to  a  nozzle  which  is  attached  to  another 
flexible  pipe  through  which  the  operator  directs  a  stream  of 
compressed  air.  This  stream  of  air  serves  the  double  pur- 
pose of  intensifying  the  heat  of  the  gas  flame  and  blowing 
it  with  force  against  the  metal  surface  to  be  worked.  The 
braz^r  should  rest  on  a  solid  iron  bed  or  brick  base.  Rub- 
ber tubes  are  permitted;  but  gas  shut-off  cock  should  be 
located  at  permanent  wall   connection. 

BREAK-JOINT— To  so  overlap  pieces  that  the  joints  shall 
not  occur  at  the  same  places  and  thus  produce  a  poor  bond. 

BREAST-SUMMER— A  kind  of  lintel  supporting  a  wall 
over  a  door  or  other  opening. 

BREECHING— An  iron  flue,  lined  or  unlined,  or  brick  or 
tile,  connecting  the  larger  or  header  flue  from  the  boiler  to 
the  stack.     See  Smoke  Pipes. 

BREWERIES — Process  is  steeping  or  soaking  grain  in 
warm  water,  spreading  same  on  "growing  floor"  to  germi* 
nate  or  sprout  the  grain;  dried  in  kilns,  stored  in  bins, 
screened  to  remove  dirt  or  waste,  weighed,  crushed  in  malt 
mill,  mixed  with  water  and  other  ingredients  (and  at  times 
adulterants)  in  mashtub,  cooking  or  brewing  with  hops  in 
steam  kettles  (known  as  wort),  the  liquor  drawn  off  and 
filtered  or  contents  dumped  into  "hop-jack"  where  spent 
grain  is  removed  and  liquor  pumped  to  coolers,  then  fer- 
mented in  wooden  vats,  and  "racked"  or  drawn  off  in  kegs. 

Hazards — In   kiln   house,   the   setting   of  the   furnace   sup- 


^/^V//////''//A  y  <^'^^^  ^^'^^^^y'^y^' ^i^m,  *4r' 


^ 


From    "Live   Articles    on    Si)ecial    Hazards,"    pub.    by 
"Weekly   Underwriter." 

Brew  House. 


56  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

plying  the  heat  to  dry  the  grain.  Where  furnace  is  directly 
under  the  drying  floors,  the  grain  is  apt  to  fall  on  the  tut- 
nace  and  ignite,  therefore  the  top  of  furnace  should  be 
hooded.  Where  brick-set  furnaces  are  located  in  building 
adjoining,  the  heated  air  is  blown  or  forced  into  the  kiln 
house  through  brick  flues.  These  buildings  should  be  cut 
off  from  balance  of  the  plant.  The  suction  fan  over  kiln 
floors  at  roof  collec'^s  considerable  dust,  and  fires  are  caused 
by  friction  of  maciiinery  and  dusty  bearings.  In  "Brew"* 
house,  the  "lofters"  or  "legs,"  which  are  traveling  belts,  en- 
closed in  wood  boxing,  on  which  buckets  are  fastened,  con- 
veying grain  from  one  floor  to  another.  They  should  be  of 
metal;  whetiier  of  wood  or  metal  they  should  have  explosion 
vents.  The  latter  are  small  doors  kept  closed  by  spring 
hinges.  The  force  of  a  dust  explosion  opens  these  doors 
sufficiently  to  cause  a  lessening  of  the  force  of  the  explo- 
sion. The  "strut"  board  of  lofter  over  which  passes  the 
belting  should  be  slanting  to  prevent  the  grain  from  collect- 
ing and  causing  friction  fires  in  bearings.  The  *'boot"  or 
lower  part  of  the  lofter  should  also  be  slanting  and  keptg 
clean.  Malt  mill  to  be  of  all  metal  design  with  magnets  at 
the  rollers  where  malt  is  crushed  to  catch  all  metallic  sub- 
stances, thus  preventing  sparks  at  the  rollers.  Also  spring- 
boards under  the  rollers  will  keep  malt  packed  against  the 
rollers,  preventing  an  accumulation  of  dust  which  in  the  event 
of  a  spark  would  explode.  An  automatic  steam  jet  at  this 
point  would  extinguish  fire,  resulting  from  such  dust  explo- 
sions. Screeners  should  have  magnets  where  grain  enters 
through  hoppers,  also  at  grain  bins  through  which  pass  the 
lofters. 

Incidental  hazards  are  cooper  shops  with  pitch  kettle. 
Pitch  kettles  are  usually  heated  by  direct  fires  and  ought 
to  be  outside  the  buildings  under  separate  cover.  Storage 
of,  repairing  and  varnishing  old  fixtures.  Branding  kegs. 
The  branding  iron  used  to  impress  the  name  of  the  brewer 
on  the  keg  is  sometimes  heated  by  an  improvised  gasoline 
fuel  appliance.  Stables  with  blanket  drying  room,  garages. 
(C.  E.  Jahne,  "Live  Articles  on  Special  Hazards,"  The 
Weekly   Underwriter.) 


,y  .,^^.,-,./1S   ..,^/V.^  ^  e^^V.'.j/ 


From    "Live   Articles    on    Special    Hazards."    pub.    by    "Weekly   Underwriter.' 
Cold  ^toragre  House, 


58  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

BREWERY  GRAIN  DRYERS— Grain  is  received  Trom  the 
hop-jacks  of  breweries  and  used  by  farmers  for  cattle  feed. 
The  water  is  pressed  out,  the  grain  dried  in  large,  revolving, 
steam-heated  dryers,  then  ground  in  knife-grinder  and 
bagged.  Usually  of  frame  construction  in  outskirts  of  city  and 
"shafty."  The  floors  are  pierced  by  elevator  legs,  chutes  and 
hoppers.     Boiler  hazard. 

BRICKS  should  not  be  laid  in  freezing  weather.  Frost  ex- 
pands  the  water  in  the  mortar  and  thrusts  the  brick  out  of 
position. 

Pale  Bricks  are  those  improperly  burned  and  are  useless 
for  building  material. 

Fire  Bricks  are  made  from  a  mixture  of  several  clays,  to 
which  has  been  added  a  certain  amount  of  ground  brick  or 
quartz. 

Radial  Bricks  are  perforated  radial  blocks  made  of  tested 
clays. 

BRICK-ARCHED— An  arch  of  brickwork  laid  or  sprung 
between   "I"   beams,    as    ''brick-arched"   floor   or   roof. 

BRICK-FILLING  or  BRICK-LINING— A  stud  wall  fillea 
in  with  brick.  Although  classed  as  frame,  they  frequently 
prove  to  be  very  valuable  in  preventing  spread  of  fire.  The 
brick  filling  should  "extend  to  the  roof  boards  when  frame 
buildings  are  built  adjoining.     See  Frame  Rows. 

BRICK-NOGGING  (used  in  place  of  wood-nogging  pieces) 
makes  a  fire  stop  between  studding  at  each  floor  by  one 
thickness  of  brick  set  between  the  studs. 

BRICK  VENEER— One  or  two  thicknesses  of  brick  used 
in  place  of  clapboards  in  frame  construction.  Classed  same 
as  frame  buildings. 

BRICK  WORKS— Bricks  are  made  of  clay,  principally  sili- 
cate of  alumina  with  perhaps  lime,  magnesia  and  oxide  of 
iron.  Made  by  hand  or  machinery,  air  or  artificially  dried, 
then  burned  in  kilns.  Kilns  are  permanent,  or  of  knock-down 
type,  built  up  around  the  arch  of  bricks  to  be  burned,  and 
fires  built  directly  under  the  bricks.  Permanently  built  kilns 
are  the  safer.  Considered  poor  fire  risks.  Physical  hazards 
of  boiler  location,  storage  of  hay  and  straw  for  packing,  arti- 
ficial  drying.     Moral  hazard   induced  by  exhaustion  of  clay 


BRISTLES  59 

deposits,  poor  transportation  facilities,  class  of  help.  Usually 
large  frame  areas  out  of  protection.     See  Tile  Works. 

BRIDGING  JOISTS  are  those  which  extend  from  trimmer 
joist  at  flues  or  fireplace  to  the  opposite  wall. 

BRIQUETTES— Used  in  place  of  coal.  Made  of  ground 
coal,  coal  dust  and  crude  oil  or  other  heavy  oil.  Process  is 
grinding  or  pulverizing  coal,  mixing  with  oil,  hydraulic 
pressing.     Oil  storage  important  hazard. 

BRISTLES  used  in  brush-making.  Prepared  from  hides 
which  are  first  softened  with  unslaked  lime  and  water  in  a 
tub,  and  the  hair  pulled  out  by  hand,  then  cleaned  with  a 
mixture  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen  and  muriatic  acid,  and 
further  cleaned  with  soap  and  water,  wrapped  in  bundles, 
dried.  For  coloring,  the  small  bundles  or  wads  are  dipped 
in  boiling  permanganate  of  potash.  If  white  ends  are  de- 
sired, peroxide  of  hydrogen  will  bleach  the  permanganate 
and  leave  the  ends  white.  Combed  by  hand.  Dry-room  prin- 
cipal hazard. 

BRITISH  GUM  (dextrine)— A  stiffening  substance  ex- 
tracted from  potatoes,  wheat  or  rye.  Used  by  calico  printers 
and  for  sizing.     See  Dextrine. 

BROKEN-JOINT — An  arrangement  of  material  such  as 
brick,  laid  in  courses  so  that  no  two  joints  are  immediately 
over  each  other.     See  Bond. 

BROKEN  PLASTER  on  wood  lath  as  used  for  ceilings, 
etc.,  must  be  repaired  to  prevent  fire  from  readily  gaining 
access  to  the  concealed  spaces  back  of  it.     See  Furring. 

BROKER — A  business  representative  of  the  insured,  not 
of  the  company.  For  the  commissions  received  from  insur*. 
ance  premiums,  he  looks  after  the  insurance  interests  of  his 
clients. 

Brokers  or  agents  who  agree  to  procure  insurance  on 
terms  and  conditions  as  agreed  between  them  and  the  owner, 
and  then  fail  to  properly  protect  the  owner  as  agreed,  become 
legally  liable  for  the  loss  if  fire  occurs,  to  the  extent  of  their 
negligence.     See  Agent. 

BROMATES   are  bromic  acid   compounds. 

BROMIDES — Compounds  of  bromine  with  metals  (potas- 
sium bromide). 


60  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

BROMINE  is  obtained  from  sea  and  mineral  spring  water 
or  seaweed.  It  is  volatile.  If  united  with  antimony,  arsenic 
or  copper  it  will  burn  fiercely.  If  mixed  with  potassium  it 
explodes  violently,  producing  potassium  bromide.  Not  in* 
flammable. 

BRONZE — Composed  of  copper  and  tin. 

BRONZE  COLORS— Made  from  metallic  bronze,  some- 
times mixed  with  such  dangerous  liquids  as  collodion  and 
amyl  acetate. 

BRONZE  FOUNDRIES— Use  iron,  copper  or  silver  ni- 
trate for  coloring  the  bronze  castings.  The  nitrates  are 
diluted,  applied  by  brush,  and  the  castings  baked  in  an  oven. 

BRONZING  LIQUIDS  usually  contain  pyroxylin  or  solu- 
ble cotton  dissolved  in  volatile,  inflammable  solvents.  Classed 
as  inflammable. 

BROODERS— See  Incubators. 

BROOM  CORN— See  Broom  Factories. 

BROOM  CORN  ROOT  burns  quickly. 

BROOM  FACTORIES  employ  power  machinery  such  as 
seeders,  wood-working  and  metal-working  machines.  Gluing, 
varnishing  and  bleaching.  Cheap  labor,  crowded  lofts  or 
buildings.  Broom  corn  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion  un- 
der some  conditions.     A  poor  fire  record  class. 

BRUSH  FACTORIES— There  are  many  different  kinds  of 
brushes,  requiring  different  methods  of  manufacture.  The 
bristles  and  hair  are  usually  received  ready  to  use.  Wood- 
working machinery  of  various  kinds  used  for  backs.  Metal- 
working  machines  for  parts.  The  wood  backs  are  stained, 
painted,  varnished,  enamelled  or  celluloid  covered.  In  the 
latter  process  the  wooden  backs  are  slightly  warmed  on  a 
steam-heated  table,  a  thin  sheet  of  celluloid  cemented  on, 
placed  in  a  screw  press,  then  the  celluloid  edge  sandpapered 
land  trimmed.  In  finishing  department,  each  worker  has  an 
individual  cup  or  air  brush  for  touching  up  with  lacquer, 
shellac  or  liquid  bronze.  The  metal  parts  require  japanning 
or  enamelling.  The  bristles  are  glued,  or  pitch  or  rubber-set. 
Vulcanizing  rubber,  and  use  of  rubber  cement  thinned  with 
naphtha  are  necessary.  The  hazards  are  wood  and  metal- 
working,  with  painting,  varnishing,  japanning  and  enamelling, 


BUFF  WHEELS  61 

pitch  and  glue  heating,  handling  of  celluloid,  use  of  benzine, 
dry  rooms,  vulcanizing  rubber.     See   Bristles. 

Twisted  wire  brushes  have  no  backs,  the  bristles  being 
twisted  in  with  the  wire.  The  only  hazards  are  the  clippers 
and  combers,  which  are  run  by  individual  motors. 

BUCK  is  a  small  pressing  board  on  top  of  pressing  tables 
in  clothing  factories.  Steam-heated  ones,  used  without  table, 
but  require  a  small  individual  gas-heated  boiler  to  generate 
steam.     See  Pressing  Tables. 

BUCKRAM,  used  for  hat  frames,  is  cloth  sized  with  glue, 
dried   on   cylindrical   or   tentering   dryer. 

BUCKRAM  AND  LININGS  are  dyed  and  sized.  In  dye- 
ing, aniline  colors,  muriatic  and  sulphuric  acids,  chloride  of 
lime,  tannic  acid  and  caustic  soda  are  used.  Gums  and  starches 
are  used  for  sizing.  The  gums  are  sometimes  heated  by 
direct  fire. 

BUCKWHEAT,  ground,  is  said  to  ignite  spontaneously  if 
damp. 

BUFFING  is  polishing  by  power.  Considerable  lint  made 
during  this  process. 

BUFFING  WAX  usually  contains  emery  dust,  paraffine, 
stearic  acid,  petrolatum,  and  mineral  waxes. 

BUFF  WHEELS— Pieces  of  cloth  glued  and  sewed  to- 
gether. To  produce  a  high  polish  on  brass  goods  without 
lacquering,  the  brass  part  is  fixed  on  a  movable  iron  frame 
which  gradually  forces  the  brass  against  the  buff  wheel.  Fires 
have  arisen  when  inexperienced  workmen  have  caused  undue 
friction  by  applying  too  much  pressure  against  the  buff  wheel. 
This  sets  fire  to  the  buff  wheel,  and  the  flames  are  sucked 
into  the  blower  system. 

BUILDERS'  MATERIAL  YARDS— Stock  includes  brick, 
lime,  cement,  lath,  tiling,  flue  pipe.  Lime  and  cement  should 
be  skidded  and  under  cover.  Unslaked  lime  will  cause  fire. 
Cement  if  wet  will  cake  and  be  practically  valueless. 

BUILDERS*  RISK  is  generally  understood  to  constitute 
work  of  a  structural  nature  that  requires"  underpinning  or 
shoring  walls,  constructing  or  reconstructing  building  or  ad- 
ditions thereto  or  enlarging  the  premises.  See  Mechanics* 
Privilege.     See   Course  of  Construction. 


62  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

BUILDINGS  SET  ON  PILES,  such  as  at  seashore,  should 
be  screened  around  piling  to  prevent  papers  and  trash  from 
accumulating  under   building. 

BUILDING   SALVAGE— See   Salvage. 

BULKHEAD — The  enclosure  of  a  stair,  elevator  or  other 
shaft  or  cornice  built  above  the  roof. 

BULKHEAD  BUILDING— The  shore  end  of  a  pier. 
Usually  a  story  higher  than  the  pier  proper  and  used  for 
offices  and  store-rooms. 

BUNKER  ROOMS  in  cold  storage  plants  are  sometimes, 
as  in  all  plants  furnishing  their  own  steam,  coal  storage 
rooms.  This  term  is  applied  here  usually  when  plants  have 
expansion  coils  in  refrigeration  rooms  or  congealing  tanks. 
Some  plants  have  a  special  room  for  expansion  coils  or  brine 
pipes  only.  These  rooms  are  frequently  referred  to  as  bunker 
rooms. 

BUNSEN  BURNER— A  single-flame  upright  gas  jet,  set 
on  metal  base  and  usually  connected  with  rubber  tubing. 
Used  by  jewelers,  metal  workers,  dentists  and  in  laboratories. 
The  gas  shut-off  to  be  at  permanent  wall  connection  and  set 
on  metal  covered  table  with  air  space  under  the  metal. 

BURNETTIZING  (fire-proofing)  WOOD— The  timber  is 
immersed  in  a  solution  of  zinc  chloride,  or  the  fluid  may  be 
forced  through  the  pores  of  the  wood  by  pressure.  This 
tends  to  harden  the  wood  and  renders  it  partially  incom- 
bustible. 

BURNING  POINT  of  a  substance,  the  temperature  at 
which  it  will  take  fire.     See  Flash  Point. 

BURNING  POINTS  OF  WOODS— The  burning  points  of 
wood  ranges  from  400  to  600  deg.  F.  By  burning  point  is 
meant  "ignition"  point.  The  all-resinous  woods  have  the 
lower  point  of  ignition  and  are  also  apt  to„  give  off  an  in- 
flammable vapor.  Non-resinous  hardwoods  have  perhaps  the 
higher  ignition  point.  It  is  claimed  that  California  red  wood 
has  the  highest  ignition  point.  This  claim,  however,  is  made 
by  manufacturers  who  deal  in  products  made  of  this  material. 

BURLAP — Said  to  be  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion 
when  oiled  or  dyed. 


BUTTONS  63 

BURNISH— To  polish  by  rubbing.  Chiefly  applies  to 
metals. 

BUSINESS     BLOCKS    IN    VILLAGES— Mainly    f rame  ^ 
buildings    built   in   rows   and   contain     the    postoffice,    opera 
house,  variety  store,  paint  store.    Communicating  roof  spaces. 
Bad  fire  record.     See  Frame  Rows;  also  Country  Stores. 

BUSINESS  IN  WOMAN'S  NAME— See  Names. 

BUSINESS  INTERRUPTION  INDEMNITY— See  Use 
and  Occupancy. 

BUTCHER  SHOPS— Considered  good  insurance,  as  the 
greater  liability  is  on  fixtures  rather  than  stocks.  May  have 
an  unsafe  gas  stove  in  the  rear,  an  unsafe  swinging  gas 
bracket  at  ice  box,  and  a  small  amount  of  saltpetre  for  corn- 
ing beef.  Sawdust  is  found  on  the  floors  of  this  class.  Sau- 
sage-making and  meat-packing.  The  fire  record  is  good  in 
even  the  poorest  grade  of  shops. 

BUTTONS,  CELLULOID— Celluloid  is  received  in  col- 
ored sheets.  Machinery  used  are  stamping  presses,  cutters, 
boring  lathes,  turning  and  frazing  machines,  drop-hammers. 
Steam  and  hot  water  used  for  moulding;  emery,  buflf  and 
sandpaper  wheels,  gas  or  steam-heated  die  presses,  gas  blow- 
pipes. Painting  with  highly  inflammable  liquids  applied  by 
hand  or  air  brush  and  containing  collodion,  acetone,  amyl 
acetate  and  mineral  colors.  Hazard  of  dry-rooms  with  air 
impregnated  with  explosive. mixtures.     See  Celluloid. 

Cloth-covered  Buttons — Cloth  scraps  cut  into  shape  by 
hand,  fitted  over  metal  form,  pressed  together.  Frayed  or 
rough  edges  singed  with  gas  flame  injected  in  revolving 
metal  cage  or  the  buttons  are  lightly  covered  with  alcohol 
and  set  on  fire  in  rapidly  oscillating  or  revolving  metal  screen. 
Care  of  scrap  cloth,  paper  linings  and  cotton  padding. 

Composition  Buttons — Made  of  rosin,  clay,  pulverized  rock, 
wheat  paste,  mineral  oils  and  colors.  These  are  mixed  to- 
gether, heated  in  steam  kettles,  rolled  into  sheets  on  steam 
tables,  cut  into  shape,  dried. 

Glass  Buttons — Glass  received  in  bars,  reheated  in  gas 
furnaces,  pressed  into  shape  while  hot  on  gas-heated  presses, 
and  gradually  cooled  in  small  lehr.  Hazards  of  gas-heated 
furnaces,  lehrs  and  blow  pipe.s. 


64  INSPECTION     AND     UNDERWRITING 

Horn,  Ivory,  Pearl  and  Bone  Buttons — Process  similar  in 
all  these,  including  "vegetable"  ivory,  which  is  Tanqua  nuts 
from  South  America.  Process  is  boring,  cutting,  drilling, 
smoothing  with  sand  and  emery  wheels.  Hazards  of  dirty 
bearings  on  high-speed  machines,  dry  rooms. 

Metal  Buttons — General  machine-shop  hazard  with  metal 
working,  lacquering,   buffing,   plating,  dry   rooms. 

Pearl  Buttons — The  pearl  used  is  from  clams,  oysters, 
sometimes  called  mother-of-pearl.  High-speed  water-cooled 
saws  needed,  including  special  machines  for  certain  kinds 
of  buttons.  Pearl  cleaned  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  polished 
with  sawdust  in  tumblers.  Aqua  ammonia  and  silver  nitrate 
used  for  coloring  pearl  to  a  darker  shade. 

Wood  Buttons — Involves  a  wood-working  hazard,  boring, 
ing,  sandpapering,  shellacing  and  varnishing. 

BUTTRESS — A  vertical  projecting  piece  of  brickwork  or 
masonry  built  in  front  of  a  wall  to  strengthen  it,  or  a  mass 
of  stone  or  brickwork  intended  to  support  a  wall  or  to  assist 
it  in  sustaining  the  strain  that  may  be  upon  it. 


CABINET  FACTORIES— Lumber  is  brought  from  yard, 
dried  in  kilns,  taken  to  the  mill  and  cut  up  into  various  sizes 
and  shapes,  the  work  consisting  of  cross-cut  sawing,  dove- 
tailing, rip  and  resawing,  mortising,  carving,  tenoning.  The 
parts  are  placed  in  caul  box  prior  to  and  after  gluing  and 
assembled.  A  coat  of  water  or  oil  stain  is  applied,  then  var- 
nished, rubbed  with  pumice,  polished  and  packed.  Hazards 
of  wood-workers.     See   Carpenter   Stoves. 

CABLES — The  best  sign  of  the  overloading  of  a  cable 
(electrically)  is  given  when  the  cable  begins  to  get  hot. 

Cables  used  in  deep  salt  water  are  made  as^  follows:  In 
the  centre  there  is  a  core  consisting  of  strands  of  copper 
wire.  This  is  covered  with  several  coats  of  rubber.  A  coat 
of  jute  follows,  then  a  layer  of  galvanized  iron  wires,  and 
finally  a  layer  of  yarn  and  compound  which  forms 'the  outer 
covering. 

CAGE  CONSTRUCTION  is  a  term  peculiarly  descriptive 
of  that  type  of  construction  represented  by  the  most  ad- 
vanced and  approved  practise,  a  framework  of  columns  and 
beams,  spliced  at  the  joints,  riveted  at  the  connections,  stiff- 
ened by  an  efficient  bracing  of  rods,  portals  or  gussets  that 
make  it  independently  safe  against  any  external  force,  leav- 
ing the  thin  and  light  exterior  walls  with  no  duty  to  per- 
form except  that  of  providing  protection  and  ornamentation 
to  the  building. — J.  F.  Kendall.    (See  Skeleton  Construction.) 

CALCINATION — Ores  and  chemicals  are  brought  to  red 
heat  to  expel  volatile  constituents,  destroy  organic  mat- 
ter and  loosen  the  mass. 

CALCIUM  CARBIDE  is  made  by  the  fusion  of  lime  and 
coke,  or  quicklime  and  charcoal  in  an  -electric  furnace  at 
3,000  deg.  C.     See  Acetylene. 

A  substitute  for  calcium   carbide  is  a  disc  made  of  crude 

65 


66  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

oil,  calcium  carbide,  sulphur,  sugar.  These  are  cooked  to- 
gether and  pressed  into  cakes. 

CALCIUM  CHLORIDE— Reservoirs  for  use  with  dry 
pipe  sprinkler  equipments  in  cold  storage  warehouses..  See 
diagrams  issued  by  New  York  Fire  Insurance  Exchange. 

CALCIUM  LIGHT  RISKS— Storage  of  theatre  properties, 
lighting  stands  and  apparatus,  color  mixture,  asphaltum  and 
alcohol,  charging  cylinders,  air  compressors,  oxygen  re- 
ducing devices,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  gas  outfits  for  lead 
burning.  Work  consists  of  charging  cylinders  with  illumin- 
ating gas  using  compression  of  225  lbs.  Reducing  pressure 
on  oxygen  gas  cylinders  from  1,800  lbs.  to  225  lbs.  through 
a  series  of  valves,  the  last  being  set  at  225  lbs.  This  class 
should  be  written  cautiously. 

CALCIUM  LIGHT  TUBES  for  lighting  are  arranged  in 
pairs  of  steel  cylinders,  one  with  oxygen  and  one  with 
hydrogen.      Inflammable. 

CALCIUM  OXIDE  (unslaked  lime  or  quicklime)  is  a 
white  solid  mass  obtained  by  burning  limestone  (incom- 
bustible). ^  If  combined  with  water  gives  off  great  heat  suf- 
ficient to  cause  ignition.     Classed  as  hazardous. 

CALCIUM  PHOSPHATE  is  a  reddish  or  grayish  solid 
mass  whi*ch  decomposes  on  contact  with  water,  forming 
hydrogen  phosphide,  which  ignites  spontaneously  on  contact 
with  air.     Used  in  signal  fires.     Classed  as  inflammable. 

CALENDERING — A  process  whereby  material  is  finished 
or  glazed  by  being  passed  over  or  under  the  surfaces  of 
steam-heated  cylinders. 

CALK  OR  CAULK— To  fill  seams  with  something  to 
prevent  leaking.     Oakum  is  usually  used. 

CALORIZING  IRON— No  mass  of  iron,  no  matter  how 
large,  can  be  heated  red  in  contact  with  air  without  rusting. 
At  temperatures  above  red  heat  iron  rapidly  oxidizes  and 
scales  away;  or,  in  other  words,  burns.  Calorizing  is  a 
process  discovered  by  T.  Van  Aller,  for  prolonging  the  life 
of  iron  (or  copper)  by  heating  metals  in  a  revolving  drum 
with  a  mixture  containing  finely  divided  aluminum  which 
produces  a  surface  alloy  on  the  metal,  thus  preventing  the 
metal    from   burning   and   providing   means    of   frequent    re- 


CANDLE  FACTORIES  67 

newals  when  used  in  laboratories  where  high  temperature 
furnaces  or  retorts  are  used. 

CAMPHENE — A  mixture  of  three  parts  alcohol  and  one 
part  turpentine;  resembles  camphor.     Inflammable. 

CAMPHENES— Etheral  oils  destitute  of  oxygen  (oil  of 
turpentine,  etc.). 

CAMPHOR  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  wood  of  certain 
Chinese  or  Japanese  trees.     It  is  inflammable. 

CAMPHOR  BALLS  OR  FLAKES— Naphthalene  moth 
camphor  is  inflammable;  melts  quickly  to  a  fhin  liquid  and 
gives  off  vapors  \/hich  attack  the  eyes.  The  vapors  are 
readily  ignited. 

CANALS  AND  FEEDERS— Entering  into  large  bodies  of 
water  are  usually  built  for  the  accommodation  of  the  manu- 
facturing establishments  adjacent  thereto  and  act  as  water- 
ways for  boats,  supplying  water-power,  and  sometimes  as 
sewers.  Surfaces,  as  a  rule,  are  oily,  due  to  the  waste  mate- 
rial let  into  the  canal. 

CANAUBA  WAX— Extracted  from  the  leaves  of  the 
Canauba  palm.     Melting  point  185  deg.  F.    Used  as  a  cement. 

CANCELLATION  NOTICES  are  sent  by  registered  mail, 
personal  service  or  by  sheriff  or  constable.  Receipt  must  be 
signed  by  all  parties  interested  as  assureds. 

CANDELIA— See  Vegetable  Waxes. 

CANDLE  FACTORIES— The  raw  materials  used  may  be 
of  animal,  vegetable  or  mineral  origin,  such  as  tallow,  sper- 
maceti, paraffine  or  other  waxes.  The  processes  employed 
are:  Tallow  in  common  with  mineral  fats  consist  mainly 
of  stearine  and  olein.  It  is  decomposed  into  these  two  con- 
stituents by  treating  it  in  large  copper  digestors  set  over 
brick  furnaces.  In  these  the  tallow  is  treated  with  super- 
heated steam  at  a  pressure  of  about  150-160  lbs.,  equalling 
a  temperature  of  365-375  deg.  F.,  the  cylinders  them- 
selves being  heated  by  direct  fire  heat.  The  resulting  mix- 
ture of  the  stearic  and  oleic  acids  is  pressed  to  remove  the 
former  from  the  latter,  which  is  a  liquid.  The  stearic  acid 
is  then  melted  and  run  into  candles,  and  the  crude  oleic  acid 
is  barrelled  and  sold  to  soap-makers  under  the  name  of 
Red  Oil     Hazards;     The  manufacture  of  stearine  from  tal- 


68  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

low  is  not  especially  hazardous  except  that  occasionally  the 
digestor  explodes,  in  which  case  the  melted  fat  would  be 
scattered  about.  The  hazard  of  the  raw  materials  is  the 
large  quantities  in  which  they  are  stored,  all  of  which  are 
combustible.     The  entire  process  is  generally  steam. 

CANDLE-POWER  is  the  measure  of  brilliancy.  It  is  the 
definite  term  fixed  by  American  law  as  the  amount  of  light 
given  by  a  candle  burning  120  grains  of  wax  per  hour. 

CANDLE  STRUCTURE— See  Flames. 

CANDLES  are  responsible  for  many  fires  during  the  holi- 
da}^  season  in  certain  congested  sections  of  Greater  New 
York  and  during  religious  holidays  when  used  on  mantels 
or  Christmas  trees.  Celluloid  candlesticks,  under  the  name 
of  "Composition  Ivortur,"  "Imitation  Ivory"  and  "Domestic 
I\ory"  have  been  found  on  sale  in  department  stores.  Most 
of  the  candlesticks  have  a  cup-shaped  metal  cap  placed  in 
the  top  and  used  to  receive  the  candle.  The  manufacturers 
claim  that  this  would  prevent  the  candle  from  igniting  the 
pyroxylin.  It  w^as  found,  however,  that  such  is  not  the  case, 
for  when  the  candles  were  lighted  and  allowed  to  burn  down 
the  candlestick  ignited  and  burned  with  the  customary  in- 
tensity.    They  should  be  prohibited. 

CANDLING  EGGS— Eggs  are  held  in  front  of  a  light 
before  a  small  aperture  which  allows  the  candler  to  ascer- 
tain if  there  are  any  blood  spots  or  water  spots  in  the  eggs. 
Dark  rooms  are  required.  Carelessness  in  handling  packing 
material,  electric  light  cords  hung  on  nails,  kerosene  oil 
lamps  or  candles  cause  many  fires.  Candling  was  first  done 
by  holding  the  egg  in  front  of  a  candle.     See  Eggs. 

CANDY  FACTORIES— The  materials  used  are  sugar, 
glucose,  chocolate,  essential  oils,  flavoring  extracts,  syrups, 
nuts  and  spices.  Starch  is  used  incidentally.  The  hazards  are 
"batch  warmers,"  which  are  used  to  keep  stock  from  setting. 
They  resemble  a  hood  of  metal  set  on  a  bench  with  gas 
burners  under  same.  If  direct  fire  heat  is  used,  they  should 
set  on  an  incombustible  base  and  have  a  permanent  iron 
gas  pipe  connection.  Candy  furnaces  are  cylindrical  iron, 
fire  brick-lined  stoves,  coke  or  coal  fed  with  the  grate  near 
the  bottom  and  the  candy  kettles  resting  directly  over  the 


CANNED   GOODS  69 

fire.  The  principal  danger  is  the  likelihood  of  the  candy  boil- 
ing over  into  the  fire,  where  it  might  flare  up  and  ignite  the 
ceiling  or  run  over  the  floor.  The  furnace  should  set  on 
proper  brick  yentilated  foundation  and  have  metal  hood 
over.  Coaters  and  Tumblers:  Candies  v^ith  nut  centres 
and  sugar-coated  are  made  by  tossing  and  tumbling  in  spheri- 
cal copper  vessels,  steam  heated,  and  have  practically  no  fire 
hazard.  Dipping  Pans:  These  are  for  dipping  unfinished 
candies,  generally  in  melted  chocolate.  The  pans  are  usually 
set  in  the  v^ork  table  and  heated  by  steam.  Kettles:  In  ad- 
dition to  the  kettles  used  on  the  furnaces,  stationary  copper 
and  iron  kettles  (steam  heated)  are  used  for  melting  sugar, 
glucose  and  syrup.  Peanut  Roasters:  These  are  generally 
small  rotating  iron  cylinders  heated  by  gas,  coke  or  coal. 
They  should  be  properly  set  and  guarded  from  inflammable 
material.  Vacuum  Pans,  sometimes  used  for  boiling  sugar 
and  syrup,  present  only  the  hazard  of  steam  pipes.  Starch 
Bucks  are  employed  to  coat  the  candy  w^ith  starch.  These 
machines  are  motor-driven  v^ith  a  shaking  and  shifting  mo- 
tion. Very  little  dust  escapes  v^here  these  machines  are 
used,  although  open  lights  should  be  removed  from  the  im- 
mediate vicinity.  Starch  Dry  Rooms:  Candy  is  moulded 
in  depressions  made  by  patterns  pressed  upon  the  flat  sur- 
face of  powdered  starch,  held  in  wooden  trays,  the  soft  candy 
being  let  into  the  moulds  by  means  of  droppers  or  tin  ves- 
sels. To  facilitate  the  setting  of  the  candy,  the  starch  trays 
are  placed  on  racks  in  dry  rooms,  which  are  generally  frame 
and  steam  heated.  Dry  rooms  should  be  built  of  fire-proof 
material,  properly  vented  and  without  open  lights.  See 
Starch  Buck.  • 

CANE  AND  RATTAN  WORKS— As  used  for  chair  seats, 
furniture  and  baskets.  Cleaned  and  bleached  with  hydro- 
fluoric acid  and  chloride  of  lime,  split,  shaved  and  diied. 
Hazards  of  dry  rooms,  soaking  tanks,  shavers,  splitters, 
gluing,  machine  shops,  weaving  cane  seats,  varnishing,  shel- 
lacing or  painting.     Without  .these  latter  the  hazard  is  mild. 

CANNED  GOODS — Generally  considered  by  underwriters 
to  be  excellent  insurance,  as  the  contents  are  hermetically 
sealed.    May  suffer  a  severe  loss  should  even  a  small  amount 


70  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  water  remove  the  labels  and  thereby  destroy  the  identity 
of  the  goods  therein.  When  packed  in  cases,  this  is  not  so 
apt   to   occur. 

CANNEL  COAL — A  bituminous  variety  used  by  fire  de- 
partments  and   in   open-hearth   grates. 

CANTILEVER — A  lever  fixed  at  one  end  and  supporting 
a  vs^eight  or  resisting  a  force  by  virtue  of  its  ov^n  stiffness 
and  the  strength  of  its  attachment  to  the  support. 

CAOUTCHOUCINE  (or  coutchine)  is  a  water-proofing 
compound  and  a  solvent  of  resinous  substances  prepafed  by 
vaporization  of  india-rubber  at  a  temperature  of  600  deg.  F. 
Hazardous. 

CAP — Post  Cap.  The  top  member  (flat)  of  a  column  or 
post. 

CAPACITY  OF  WATER  TANKS— See  Tables. 

CAP  FACTORY— Cloth  caps,  largely  made  from  scraps 
or  piece  goods;  celluloid  for  visors,  cotton  batting  for  stuff- 
ing, embossing  ornaments,  hydraulic  presses,  dry  rooms, 
sewing  machines.  Habitually  untidy  and  generally  cheap 
class  of  help.     Unprofitable  class. 

CAPITAL  OF  A  COMPANY— The  money  furnished 
by  the  stockholders  to  give  stability  as  required  in  the  or- 
ganization of  a  company,  thus  providing  funds  from  which 
the  policy-holders  can  draw  in  case  of  emergency.  It  is  a 
liability. 

CAP  STONE— See  Bond  and  Cap  Stones. 

CARBIDES — Compounds  of  carbon  and  metals.  Some  are 
explosive. 

CARBINOL-METHYLIC  ALCOHOL  or  wood  spirit. 
Inflammable  liquid.  * 

CARBOHYDRATES— Consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen.  They  include  all  substances  bearing  names  ending 
in  ose. 

CARBOLIC  ACID  is  derived  from  coal  tar.  Melts  at  108 
deg.  F.  Not  explosive  in  itself.  Manufacturing  hazard  is 
mild. 

CARBOLINEUM — A  wood  preserver,  chemical  fluid.  Base 
is  heavy  coal-tar  product  mixed  with  chlorine  gas.  Flash 
about  280  deg.  F.     Free  from  combustion. 


CARBON    TETRA-CHLORIDE  71 

CARBOLIZING — Consists  of  extracting  the  sap  and  water 
from  the  timber  and  driving  carbolic  or  tar  acids  through. 

CARBON — This  element  is  distributed  in  nature  in  the 
free  condition,  in  organic  and  inorganic  substances.  It  ap- 
pears in  various  forms,  the  most  common  being  that  of  char- 
coal, and  the  various  kinds  of  coal,  which  are  chiefly  carbon. 

CARBONATES — Are    carbonic    acid   compounds. 

CARBON-BISULPHIDE— Produced  by  passing  the  va- 
por of  burning  sulphur  over  charcoal  kept  red  hot.  Highly 
inflammable.  Vapor  mixed  with  air  takes  fire  at  300  deg. 
F.  A  solvent  for  fats,  oils,  india-rubber,  phosphorus,  bro- 
mine, iodine,  camphor.  Also  used  in  cheap  grade  paints. 
When  stored  in  steel  drums,  the  hazard  is  not  severe. 

CARBON-BLACK  (Lamp  Black)— Consists  of  light  and 
finely  divided  carbon.  It  is  obtained  by  burning  oil  or  ^as 
with  a  smoky  flame.  Will  ignite  spontaneously.  Classed  as 
inflammable  solid.  Fires  are  caused  by  the  sparks  remain- 
ing  from   the   manufacturing  processes.  . 

CARBON  BRUSHES,  used  on  motors,  are  made  of  car- 
bon and  graphite. 

CARBON-DISULPHIDE— See  Carbon-bisulphide. 

CARBON  OIL— See  Hydrocarbon. 

CARBON  PAPER  AND  TYPEWRITER  RIBBONS— 
Use  mineral  waxes,  beeswax,  Japanese  wax,  canauber  wax, 
carbon  black,  lamp  black,  castor  oil,  olive  oil,  neatsfoot  oil, 
lard  oils,  vaseline,  turpentine,  alcohol,  paraffine.  Hazards  of 
mixing  and  grinding  colors  and  ingredients,  heating  waxes 
and  oils,  applying  mixture  to  paper  and  fabrics  (a  cold  proc^ 
ess),  glue-heaters,  storage  of  materials.  See  Typewriter 
Inks. 

CARBON  TETRA-CHLORIDE— Used  as  a  basis  for  con- 
tents of  fire  extinguishers  and  for  cleaning  fluids  in  place 
of  benzine.  Made  by  passing  chlorine  gas  over  heated  car- 
bon-bisulphide, the  product  condensed  in  a  cooler.  A  mix- 
ture of  carbon  tetra-chloride  and  sulphur  is  thus  obtained. 
By  introducing  caustic  soda  or  potash  the  sulphur  dichloride 
is  decomposed  and  dissolved,  precipitating  the  purified  car- 
bon tetra-chloride.  It  is  non-hazardous  and  non-inflam- 
mable. 


72  INSPECTION    AND     UNDERWRITING 

CARBONA — Carbon  tetra-chloride  and  gasoline  mixed. 
Non-inflammable. 

CARBONACEOUS  SUBSTANCES— Many  have  no  ni- 
trogen in  them,  and  carbon  is  their  most  important  element. 
Sugar,  starch,  oils  and  fats  are  carbonaceous  substances. 

CARBONATE  OF  AMMONIA  is  made  by  heating  in 
closed  iron  vessels  bones,  hartshorn  or  other  animal  mat- 
ters and  then  purifying  them  by  sublimation. 

CARBONATE  OF  LIME  is  marble  which  contains  lime 
and  carbonic  acid. 

CARBONATE  OF  POTASH  is  obtained  from  the  ashes 
of  plants,   potash   and   carbonic   acid. 

CARBONATE  OF  SODA  is  made  from  common  salt. 
It  is  soda  and  carbonic  acid. 

CARBONIC  ACID — A  gaseous  compound  of  carbon  and 
oxygen.  It  is  produced  by  the  process  of  combustion  and 
respiration,  and  hence  is  always  present  in  the  air. 

CARBONIC  ACID  GAS  OR  CARBON  DIOXIDE— Cal- 
cium magnasite  is  heated  in  ovens  to  about  1,400  deg. 
F.  by  fuel  oil  or  gas.  The  heat  breaks  up  the  magnasite 
into  carbonic  acid  gas  and  calcide  magnasite.  Gas  is  filtered 
through  charcoal  purifiers  to  compressors.  At  high  pres- 
sure carbonic  acid  gas  liquefies.  Non-inflammable.  Cylin- 
ders containing  same  should  not  be  exposed  to  heat.  It 
extinguishes  fire  because  it  eliminates  oxygen,  which  is 
necessary  to  combustion.  Liquid  carbonic  acid  gas  is  manu- 
factured from  marble  dust  mixed  with  water,  pumped  to 
generators,  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid,  charged  with  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  From  coke-fed  retorts,  passed  through  scrub- 
bers, drawn  by  suction  to  gas  absorbers,  boiled,  purified  in 
iron  tanks,  compressed,  separated,  cooled.  Hazards  are  boil- 
ers, coke  fuel,  clearance  of  steam  conveyor  pipes  which  be- 
come hot,  acid  storage. 

CARBONIZING  means  charring  a  substance.  This  proc- 
ess is  accomplished  by  direct  fire  heat,  as  a  rule.  See  Em- 
broideries. 

CARBORUNDUM— Composed  of  slmd,  carbon  and  a  lit- 
tle salt  melted  electrically,  forming  silicon  carbide,  the  crys- 


CARPET   AND    RUG   MANUFACTURING  73 

tals  of  which  are  hard  as  diamonds  and  are  used  for  abrasive 
purposes. 

CARBOY — A  large  glass  bottle  or  demijohn  enclosed  in 
a  wooden  crate  and  generally  packed  with  straw  to  prevent 
breakage.     Usually  used   for  corrosive  acids. 

CARBURETOR  is  a  device  to  atomize  gasoline  or  other 
light  hydro-carbons,  and  then  mix  it  with  air  to  make  the 
combination  highly  combustible. 

CARBURETS— Same  as  carbides. 

CARBURETTED  HYDROGEN  is  carbon  or  charcoal 
united  with  hydrogen. 

CARDING  MACHINES— Lay  the  fibre  straight  and  form 
it  into  a  loose  roving  preparatory  to  spinning. 

In  woolen  mills  fires  are  caused  by  sparks  igniting  the 
lint  or  flyings  where  cotton  forms  part  of  the  goods.  Sparks 
usually  at  the  first  or  **licker-in"  roll.  Machines  are  fed 
automatically  from  a  Bramwell  feeder.  Hazards  depend  upon 
the  amount  of  cotton  used  (wool  not  readily  ignited).  Mills 
using  the  long,  first-grade  fibre-wool  the  least  hazardous. 
Cheap  knitting  mills  and  horse  blanket  factories  use  cheap 
grade  cotton  and  wool  which  contains  considerable  foreign 
matter.      See   Bramwell   Feed. 

CARDING  ROOMS  are  more  preferable  if  detached  or 
cut  off  by  fire  doors. 

CAROUSEL  MANUFACTURING— A  woodworking  and 
machine  shop  hazard  usually  located  in  light,  high,  one- 
story  frame  buildings  in  sparsely  settled  locations.  Not 
attractive  fire  risks.  Cheap  grade  labor  as  a  rule;  benzine- 
thinned  paints.  Where  animals  are  made,  the  seats  are  apt 
to  be  upholstered  with  excelsior. 

CARPENTERS'  STOVES  are  three  to  four  feet  long,  fif- 
teen to  eighteen  inches  wide,  set  on  legs.  Usually  burn 
wood  or  shop  refuse.     See  Cabinet  Factories. 

CARPET  AND  RUG  MANUFACTURING— Imported 
wool  received  in  bales,  then  fed  into  the  washing  machines 
and  then  into  the  picking  machine,  then  to  the  dry  room, 
where  the  heat  from  steam  coils  is  forced  through  it  by 
means  of  blowers.  The  wool  then  passes  to  the  sorting 
room,   where   the   blends   are   carefully   made   before   it   goes 


74  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

to  the  machine  which  tears  the  wool  fibres  apart  and  gets 
them  in  shape  for  the  carding  and  combing  processes.  The 
wool  is  then  blown  into  a  spinning  mill,  after  which  it  is 
ready  to  be  converted  into  yarn.  It  passes  through  a  pick- 
ing machine,  which  blends  the  different  grades  of  the  raw 
material.  It  is  then  refined  and  purified.  Through  tubes, 
the  wool  is  forced  to  the  carding  room  by  means  of  air  pres- 
sure. It  is  then  taken  to  the  combing  machines,  which  sepa- 
rate the  long  from  the  short  fibres.  The  strands  of  wool 
are  thinned  out  and  given  sufficient  strength  to  stand  the 
weaving  process.  The  yarn  next  appears  in  rows  of  spin- 
dles in  the  "mule"  room,  where  the  yarn  is  twisted  and 
brought  to  its  final  stage.  The  yarn  next  goes  to  the  dye- 
house  to  be  boiled,  bleached  and  colored,  then  to  the  drying 
house,  and  through  a  steaming  process  to  set  the  colors,  and 
next  to  the  weave  shop,  where  great  skill  is  required  in  the 
assembling  of  the  yarn  and  the  matching  of  the  colors.  The 
skeins  of  yarn  are  wound  on  spools,  which  are  put  in  sets  at 
back  of  the  looms,  each  color  or  set  representing  one  frame 
of  color  on  the  rug.  After  the  weave  is  completed,  the  rug 
comes  out  rough.  It  is  passed  through  a  finishing  machine 
to  remove  the  roughness  on  the  surface  of  the  rug  or  carpet. 

CARPET  CLEANING  employs,  as  a  rule,  revolving 
drum-beaters  enclosed  in  wood  partitions,  equipped  with 
suction  to  carry  off  dirt  and  dust.  Also  electrical  vacuum 
apparatus,  which  sucks  the  dirt  out  of  the  material.  Dust 
hazard.  No  open  lights  permitted  in  cleaning  rooms;  good 
ventilation  required.  Hazards  of  dirty  bearings,  washing  in 
soap  and  water,  dyeing,  recoloring  faded  €pots  with  aniline 
colors,  dry  rooms,  pressing  irons,  sewing  machines.  Ben- 
zine is  often  used  for  cleaning.    Poor  fire  record. 

In  some  households,  the  carpet  which  is  tacked  to  the 
floor  is  cleaned  by  naphtha  without  removing  it  from  the 
floor.  The  flooring  becomes  soaked  with  the  naphtha.  An 
open  flame  may  ignite  the  vapor  arising. 

CARPET  SLIPPER  MANUFACTURING— Cut,  sew  and 
tack  the  materials,  using  pasteboard  insoles  glued  or  pasted 
in.  Untidy  shops  and  cheap  class  labor  as  a  rule.  A  poor  fire 
record  class. 


CASEIN    OR    LACTEIN  75 

CARRON  OIL — A  mixture  of  linseed  oil  and  lime  water. 
A  good  remedy  for  burns.  Should  be  kept  in  every  factory 
and  home. 

CANTON — A  box  or  container  made  of  pasteboard  or 
corrugated  paper. 

CARTRIDGE  FUSE— A  cartridge-shaped  shell  enclosing 
an  electrical  fuse.  Used  to  prevent  the  molten  fuse  from 
igniting  inflammable  material. 

CARVERS — There  are  two  types  used  in  woodworking — 
duplicating  and  spindle.  Spindle  carver  is  a  machine 
wherein  a  milling  cutter  is  rotated  very  rapidly  ^at  the  end  . 
of  a  horizontal  spindle.  Duplicating  carver,  one  with  a  blank 
tool  and  small  cutters,  which  are  made  to  pass  simultaneously 
over  the  outlines  and  surfaces  of  a  pattern  and  the  pieces 
to  be  carved. 

CASE — A  box  for  packing  goods. 

CASE  HARDEN — To  convert  the  outer  surface  of 
wrought  iron  into  steel  by  heating  to  white  heat  in  contact 
with  charcoal. 

CASED  GOODS — Goods  unopened  and  in  cases  or  original 
containers. 

CASEIN  OR  LACTEIN— Made  from  skimmed  milk. 
Used  in  manufacturing  buttons,  combs  and  for  surfacing 
fine  printing  paper  in  preference  to  glue,  as  it  is  not  subject 
to  moisture.  Skimmed  m.ilk  is  heated  to  about  135  deg. 
F.,  sulphuric  acid  (dilute)  added  to  precipitate  the  casein, 
and  the  whey  drained  off.  The  curd  (casein)  is  drained, 
washed  in  water  to  remove  the  acid,  dried,  ground  into 
powder.  There  is  about  3^  per  cent,  of  casein  in  skimmed 
milk.  Hazards,  boilers,  acid  storage,  dry  rooms,  stone 
grinders. 

CASEMENT — Applied  to  a  window  which  is  hung  upon 
hinges  in  place  of  cord  and  sash  weight. 

CASINGS— See  Abattoir. 

CAST  IRON  is  very  brittle,  of  granular  nature  and  can- 
not be  welded.     When  heated  and  suddenly  cooled  by  water 
it  flies  into  fragments.     All  iron  work  in  buildings  should  be 
protected  (insulated)  with  at  least  two  inches  of  fire-proofing - 
material. 


76  INSPECTION    AND     UNDERWRITING 

CAST-IRON  COLUMNS— On  account  of  the  heavy,  ir- 
regular masses  of  metal  forming  the  flanges,  the  beams,  webs 
and  brackets  set  up  internal  strains  and  stresses  which  are 
apt  to  cause  invisible  cracks  which  under  any  unusu^  con- 
ditions of  loading  or  shock  might  cause  serious  calamity. 
Recommend  fabricated  steel  columns  properly  protected  by 
either  terra-cotta  or  concrete. 

CASTING — Pouring  molten  metal  into  moulds.  Ordinary 
iron  and  brass  castings  are  made  in  sand  moulds.  Iron 
moulds  are  used  for  "chilled  iron  castings." 

CASTOR  OIL  is  obtained  from  the  castor  bean,  the  seed 
of  a  plant  indigenous  to  Southern  Asia.  The  bean  contains 
from  48  to  60  per  cent,  of  oil.  The  process  of  extraction 
is  as  follows:  After  cleaning  to  remove  sand,  trash,  etc., 
the  beans  are  crushed,  packed  in  press  cylinders  and  sub- 
jected to  hydraulic  pressure.  The  oil  thus  expressed  is,  after 
settling  and  clarifying,  known  as  *'cold  pressed,"  or  medici- 
nal, and  is  in  color  from  a  water  white  to  pale  yellow,  de- 
pending on  the  quality  of  the  seed.  The  remaining  10  per 
cent,  of  the  oil  content  of  the  meat,  after  cold  pressing,  is 
heated  or  cooked  and  subjected  while  still  hot  to  hydraulic 
pressure  in  box  presses,  the  resulting  oil  being  known  as 
"hot  pressed,"  or  technical  oil,  and  is  in  color  from  a  pale 
straw  to  a  brown  tint.  Approximately  5  per  cent  of  oil  still 
remains  in  the  meat  after  the  above  process.  In  order  to  re- 
claim this  an  extraction  plant  is  necessary.  See  Extracting 
Plants. 

CATERERS — Combined  hazards  of  bakers,  confectioners 
and  restaurants. 

CAUL  BOX — A  long,  oblong  box  with  steam  coils,  used 
for  drying  lumber  of  small  dimensions.  Should  ,be  lined 
with  lock-jointed  tin  and  have  wire  screen  over  steam  coils. 
Apt  to  become  untidy  with  sawdust  or  shavings.  Formerly 
these  were  heated  by  a  smoke  pipe  of  a  stove  passing  through 
the  box. 

CAUSTIC  LIME— See  Lime. 

CAUSTIC  POTASH— Obtained  from  carbonate  of  potash 
or  pearl  ash  solution,  contained  in  an  iron  pot  by  mixing 
it  with  slaked  lime  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  the  whole 


CELLULOID  77 

being  kept  at  the  boiling  point.  Insoluble  carbonate  of  lime 
is  formed  and  potassium  hydrate  remains  in  solution.  Not 
inflammable.     There  is  no  fire  hazard  to  speak  of. 

CAUSTIC  SODA  is  prepared  by  causticizing  sodium  car- 
bonate with  lime.  Not  inflammable.  Practically  no  fire 
hazard. 

CEDAR  OIL  MOPS— Liable  to  ignite  spontaneously. 
Used  extensively  in  dwellings.  Should  be  in  well-ventilated 
room  or  a  metal  can  with  cover.  They  are  the  cause  of 
many  fires.     Proper  name  is  O'Cedar. 

CELESTROM  EBONITE,  BLACK  LACQUER— Flash 
point  290  deg.  F.     Classed  as  non-volatile. 

CELESTROM  GLOSSY  BLACK  LACQUER— Flash 
point  290  deg.  F.     Classed  as  non-volatile. 

CELESTROM  THINNER— Flash  point  290  deg.  F. 
Classed  as  non-volatile. 

CELESTROM  TRANSPARENT  LACQUER  —  Flash 
point  290  deg.  F.     Classed  as  non-volatile. 

CELLAR — A  room  or  enclosed  space  partly  or  wholly  be- 
low ground.     It  is  usually  under  a  building. 

CELLAR  FIRES  are  usually  hard  to  fight  on  account 
of  the  dense  smoke.  Generally  when  the  fire  department 
arrives  they  immediately  start  to  ventilate  the  place  by  cut- 
ting holes  in  the  floor  or  sidewalk  lights.  A  special  nozzle  is 
used  on  the  hose  when  access  to  the  cellar  cannot  be  gained. 
See  Areaways. 

CELLIT — A  substitute  for  celluloid;  does  not  burn  very 
readily.  Cinematograph  films  are  approved  by  the  British 
Fire  Prevention  Commission  as  non-flaming. 

CELLULOID — Can  be  worked  with  tools  while  cold  or 
moulded  like  plaster  when  heated  with  steam.  The  basic 
element  is  known  as  cellulose,  such  as  cotton  or  fine  tissue 
paper.  When  cotton  is  used  it  is  first  washed  in  alkalies  to 
remove  dirt  and  oil,  washed  in  water  and  dried,  cut  into 
small  lengths,  placed  in  earthen  jars  with  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids,  1  to  3  parts.  This  is  called  nitrating.  It  is  next 
washed  in  water,  dried  in  centrifugal  extractors,  and  resem- 
bles snow  when  chopped  very  fine;  then  mixed  with  cam- 
phor.    Pressed  in  slabs  in  hydraulic  press.     At  this  point  the 


78  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

material  is  not  very  inflammable.  The  slabs  are  broken  up, 
moistened  with  alcohol,  and  colored  with  aniline  tints,  then 
castor  oil  added.  The  product  is  then  passed  through  steam- 
heated  rolls,  pressed  in  steam-heated  presses  in  sheet  form, 
dried  and  polished  between  thin  sheets  of  polished  steel. 
Worked  in  plastic  state  at  150-250  deg.  F.;  if  heated  to  300 
deg.  F.  will  decompose  and  burn  without  heavy  flame,  and 
may  explode  if  confined.  Little  ether  now  used  in  its  manu- 
facture, which  makes  the  process  less  dangerous. 

Celluloid-  is  used  as  substitute  for  horn,  ivory,  shell,  pearl, 
wood  veneers.  Used  in  manufacture  of  harness  rings,  bil- 
liard balls,  combs  and  hair  ornaments,  picture  films,  shaving 
brushes,  brush  and  knife  handles,  collars,  cuffs  and  buttons, 
jewelry  backings,  decorations,  emblems,  piano  keys,  ladies* 
collar  supports,   eye-shades,  wind-shields. 

Celluloid  burns  fiercely,  frequently  accompanied  by  explo- 
sions. Most  of  the  explosions  are  caused  by  the  generating 
of  gaseous  fumes,  due  to  storing  of  the  material  in  poorly 
ventilated  places. 

Scrap  Celluloid  in  heaps  will  ignite  spontaneously  and 
should  be  kept  free  from  all  other  forms  of  refuse,  in 
metal  receptacles  with  self-closing  covers.  Scrap  from 
button,  comb  and  other  similar  risks  is  sometimes  used  in 
horn  and  fertilizer  factories.  Before  being  worked,  scraps 
should  be  run  over  a  magnet  to  remove  all  metallic  sub- 
stances. Ground  scrap  is  used  for  making  harness  rings. 
Grinding  and  sandpapering  produce  dust  and  machines 
should  have  blower  system  with  separator  and  metal  recep- 
tacle partly  filled  with  water  in  which  is  deposited  the  cellu- 
loid dust. 

Comb  Risks  usually  employ  cheap  labor.  The  work 
consists  of  shaping  blanks  and  inserting  stones.  Blanks  are 
warmed  on  sheets  of  metal  over  gas  flame  or  steam  pipe, 
placed  in  hand  moulds.  The  stones  inserted  by  use  of  a 
cement  composed  of  celluloid  and  glacial  acetic  acid. 

Button  Manufacturing  requires  the  use  of  stamping  presses, 
blow-pipes  for  making  rims  and  holders,  gas-heated  calen- 
ders, cold  or  heated  foot-power  die  presses.  Occasionally 
photo  work  for  taking  pictures. 


CELLULOID  TOYS  79 

Toys  require  similar  machinery  to  buttons.  Hot  water  is 
used  to  soften  and  steam  tables  to  mould  sheet  stock,  saws 
and  small  boring  lathes  to  work  it.  Steam  tables  are  apt  to 
become  unduly  hot  and  temperature  should  not  exceed  225 
deg.  F.  In  working  on  celluloid,  the  danger  from  sparks  is 
always  imminent,  especially  at  circular  saws  if  foreign  sub- 
stances find  their  way  into  the  stock.  In  boring  holes,  the 
spindle  is  usually  cooled  with  water,  as  are  many  of  the  saws. 
Dipping  (coloring)  involves  the  use  of  inflammable  liquids 
and  should  be  in  a  separate  fireproof  building.  An  acetone 
thinned  cement  is  used  for  cementing  the  different  parts. 
Sheet  stock,  scraps,  finished  goods,  all  should  be  in  separate 
compartments    or    buildings. 

Piano  keys  of  celluloid  present  a  fire  hazard  on  account 
of  lighted  cigar  or  cigarette  butts  being  carelessly  laid  on 
them. 

Imitation  Leathers  are  made  of  cotton  cloths  and  covered 
with  nitro-cellulose  in  jeHy  form  and  polished  with  celluloid 
solutions.     See  Imitation  Leather. 

Trade  names  are  Viscoloid,  Pyroline,  Fiberloid,  Gallilith, 
Pyroxolin. 

CEMENT — Natural  cements  are  made  by  burning  impure 
limestone  at  a  low  temperature  (insufficient  to  vitrify). 
They  do  not  slake  with  water,  but  require  to  be  ground  in 
order  to  convert  them  into  hydraulic  cement. 

Portland  cement  is  made  by  heating  to  incipient  vitrifica- 
tion an  intimate  mixture  of  argillaceous  and  calcareous  sub- 
stances, which  product  does  not  slake  with  water,  but  upon 
grinding  forms  an   energetic  hydraulic  cement. 

CEMENT  BLOCKS— Under-fire  tests,  show  that  the  usual 
thin  webs  crack  under  the  application  of  very  intense  heat. 
Webs  should  be  of  sufficient  thickness  to  withstand  the 
stresses  due  to  rapid  expansion  when  heated.  A  building  of 
cement  blocks  is  classed  as  frame  construction  by  most  rat- 
ing bureaus. 

CEMENT  PLANTS  AND  PLASTER  MILLS— There  are 
two  processes,  the  wet  and  the  dry.  Raw  stock  in  the  dry 
process  is  cement,  rock,  limestone  and  clay.  In  the  wet 
process,  marble  and  clay.     Process  consists  of  rock  crushing 


80  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

drying  through  slowly  rotating  iron  cylinders  heated  by  coal, 
and  burning  in  kilns  heated  to  2,500  to  2,800  deg.  F.  The 
hazards  are  those  usual  to  heat-producing  devices,  and 
should  be  located  a  safe  distance  from  woodwork.  Dryers 
should  be  in  separate  buildings. 

CEMENTATION — The  process  of  converting  wrought 
iron  into  steel  by  heating  it  in  contact  with  charcoal. 

CENTERING— The  supports  of  an  arch  while  being  built. 

CENTRAL  STATION— A  central  location  where  fire- 
alarms  are  received  and  immediately  transmitted  to  the  fire 
department.  They  are  superior  to  local  or  private  alarm 
systems. 

CENTRIFUGAL  PUMP— A  type  of  pump  in  which  wa- 
ter is  set  in  rapid  rotation  by  revolving  vanes.  The  water 
has  a  centrifugal  tendency  imparted  to  it  which  causes  it  to 
rise  through  a  pipe  whose  mouth  faces  tangentially  the  di- 
rection of  rotation.     See  Fire  Pumps. 

CENTRIFUGAL  SEPARATOR  OR  EXTRACTOR— A 
machine  used  for  separating  the  lighter  from  the  denser 
liquids,  or  liquids  from  solids.  The  machine  rotates  very 
rapidly  on  the  principle  that  all  liquids  fly  from  the  centre 
of  rotation.  Used  in  laundries,  dry  cleaning  establishments, 
etc.,  for  separating  liquids  from  the  cloth.  Sometimes  called 
"whizzers." 

CEREAL  MILLS— See  Flour  Mills. 

CERESINE — A  natural  mineral  wax,  same  as  Ozerite. 

CERESINAL— A  mineral  wax. 

CHANDELIER  MANUFACTURING— Gas  fixtures  are 
manufactured  from  tubing  and  gas  piping,  then  cleaned  with 
soap  or  other  compound,  plated  and  lacquered  either  by 
dipping  or  air-spraying,  using  Egyptian  or  amyl  acetate 
lacquer.  Generally  employ  cheap  labor  and  occupy  crowded 
lofts.  The  hazards  are  the  use  of  volatiles  and  lacquer  in 
rooms  with  open  lights.  Considerable  packing  material  is 
used.     Fire  record  poor. 

CHANDLERS— See   Ship's   Chandlers. 

CHAR  is  animal  charcoal  produced  by  heating  bones  to 
a  fire  heat  in  closed  receptacles  and  then  reducing  to  a  fine- 
ness. 


CHEMICALS  81 

CHARCOAL  is  wood  partly  burned.  Made  by  burning 
wood  in  heaps  covered  with  turf  and  dirt.  Small  openings 
are  left  above  and  below  so  that  a  little  air  can  circulate 
through  the  wood,  thus  continuing  a  smothered  burning.  In 
powdered  form  is  said  to  be  liable  to  spontaneous  combus- 
tion.    See  Animal  Charcoal. 

CHAR-HOUSE— See  Sugar  Refineries. 

CHARRING  is  the  heating  of  organic  matter  out  of  con- 
tact with  air. 

CHASERS — Sometimes  called  edge-runners,  consist  of  a 
heavy  wheel  mounted  on  a  horizontal  axis  which  travels 
slowly  around  a  circular  bed,  giving  a  crushing  and  mixing 
effect  to  the  material  placed  in  its  path.  Used  in  paint  or 
chocolate  factories.     No  hazard. 

CHATTEL  MORTGAGE— A  lien  upon  personal  prop- 
erty, stock,  fixtures  or  machinery  for  money  loaned.  To  the 
insurance  man  it  is  indicative  of  financial  straits,  because 
the  insured-  is  forced  to  borrow  on  his  movable  property. 

CHECK  VALVE— See   Flap-check  Valve. 

CHEMICALS — Colored  fife  in  any  form,  flashlight  pow- 
ders, liquid  acetylene,  acetylide  of  copper,  fulminate  of  mer- 
cury, fulminating  gold  or  silver,  gun  cotton,  nitroglycerine 
(except  U.  S.  P.  solution),  chloride  of  nitrogen,  amide  or 
amine  explosives,  cymogen,  volatile  coal  tar  products  having 
a  boiling  point  below  60  deg.  F.,  chlorate  of  potash  in  ad- 
mixtures of  organic  matter  or  with  phosphorus  or  sulphur, 
zinc  dust,  phosphorus,  quicklime,  phosphides,  calcium  car- 
bide, metallic  sodium  and  potassium,  should  only  be  allowed 
to  be  stored  according  to  municipal  requirements.  Dan- 
gerous chemicals  should  be  isolated  in  underground  vaults. 
Metallic  sodium  "and  potassium  in  contact  with  water  reacts, 
releasing  hydrogen,  and  flames  result.  These  latter  chemicals 
should  be  stored  in  oil.     See  Drugs  and  Chemicals. 

CHEMICAL  EXTINGUISHERS— Hand  chemicals  of  acid 
type,  consist  of  a  metal  cylinder  in  which  is  placed  a  quantity 
of  water,  a  glass  bottle  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  some  bicar- 
bonate of  soda.  By  bringing  the  acid  and  soda  in  contact,  a 
gas  is  formed  which  forces  the  water  oi»t  through  a  nozzle. 
This  type  will  destroy  nickel  and  somewhat  corrode  brass. 


82  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Should  be  recharged  every  year.  See  Dry  Powder  Extin- 
guishers. 

CHEMICAL  FIBRE  OR  FIBREBOARD— It  is  a  board- 
like substance  %  to  tV  inch  in  thickness,  and  will  not  burn 
readily.  It  is  especially  adaptable  for  covering  and  lining 
trunks. 

Fibreboard  is  made  from  various  waste  materials,  such  as 
leather  clippings,  flax,  hemp,  old  rope,  tow,  rags,  paper,  wood 
pulp  and  in  fact,  almost  any  fibrous  substance.  These  ma- 
terials are  chopped  or  cut  up  into  very  small  pieces  in  a 
cutting  machine,  then  cooked  in  an  agitated  steam-heated 
boiler,  in  solution  with  lime,  soda  ash  and  an  alkali,  for  sev- 
eral hours,  mixed  and  ground  in  a  "beater"  similar  in  prin- 
ciple and  action  to  that  found  in  paper  mills,  fitted  with  re- 
volving knives  and  agitators,  and  rosin,  soap,  coloring  matter 
'  and  other  ingredients  are  added. 

From  the  beater  the  stock  is  run  into  storage  tanks  or  stuff 
chests,  which  supply  the  board-making  machine  known  as  the 
wet  machine,  where  it  is  allowed  to  collect  uniformly  on  the 
surface  of  a  cylinder  until  it  is  of  the  proper  thickness.  It  is 
then  removed  and  placed  on,  racks  to  dry,  either  in  steam- 
heated  dry  rooms  or  on  roofs  in  the  open.  See  Fibreboard. 
^  CHEMICAL  FIRE  ENGINES— Are  used  by  fire  depart- 
ments, railroads,  hospitals  and  factories.  Consist  of  a  40-45 
gallon  chemical  tank  mounted  on  wheels  with  a  length  of 
hose  (similar  to  hand  extinguishers).  Pressure,  75-160  lbs.  or 
higher.  Tested  hose  especially  built  for  this  particular  pur- 
pose. To  operate  only  necessary  (in  some  types)  to  turn  the 
operating  wheel  at  rear,  which  revolves  the  tanks.  The  loose 
lead  stopper  drops  from  the  acid  jar,  allowing  the  acid  to 
flow  into  the  soda  or  other  alkali  forming  the  pressure.  In 
some  types,  the  bottle  containing  the  acid  breaks,  thereby 
allowing  the  acid  to  mix  with  the  soda. 

CHEMICAL  LABORATORIES— In  congested  districts  es- 
pecially where  doing  experimental  work,  constitute  severe 
exposures  as  a  rule.  In  war  times,  experimenting,  or  man- 
ufacturing of  explosives  and  dangerous  gases  predominate. 

CHEMICAL  RISKS— Should  be  written  cautiously.  In- 
spect   for    furnaces,    ovens    and    chimneys.      Liable    to    be    a 


CHIMNEYS  83 

nuisance  on  account  of  obnoxious  fumes.  The  action  of  acids 
and  corrosives  on  fire  doors  and  sprinkler  heads  makes  these 
devices  short-lived. 

CHEMICAL  WAREHOUSES— Buildings  where  the  as- 
sured agrees  to  store  separately  from  all  other  merchandise, 
a  given  list  of  chemicals,  maintaining  such  separation,  each 
from  the  other,  by  a  substantial  brick  v^all  not  less  than  12 
inches  thick,  extending  through  roof  without  doors  or 
windows. 

CHEMISTRY — A  knowledge  of  chemistry  is  a  great  asset 
to  an  insurance  inspector,  as  it  enables  him  to  determine  fire 
hazards  due  to  combination  of  materials  which  might  be 
passed  by  either  the  assured  or  a  less  qualified  inspector. 

CHEWING  GUM  MANUFACTURING— Raw  stock  con- 
sists of  chicle,  which  is  usually  received  ready  to  be  made  up, 
essential  oils,  flour,  flavoring  extracts  and  glucose.  Work 
consists  of  cooking  in  steam  kettles,  mixing  the  ingredients 
in  power  mixers,  rolling  the  gum  into  thin  sheets  by  steam 
rollers,  cutting  into  strips,  powdering  and  wrapping.  The 
gum  is  first  wrapped  in  waxed  paper.  After  wrapping,  the 
package  is  sealed  by  heating  the  waxed  paper  ends  on  a  steam 
or  gas-heated  table,  then  pressing  the  ends  together. 

CHICLE  comes  in  various  forms,  some  hard  and  some 
soft,  depending  on  locality  in  which  it  is  produced.  It  is  re- 
fined and  blended  for  use  as  chewing  gum.  Process  consists 
of  breaking  it  into  small  bits  in  a  "cracker,"  grinding  in  an 
iron  grinder,  mixing  in  steam-heated  kettles,  filtering  in 
presses.     A  steam  process. 

CHILE  SALTPETRE  (sodium  nitrate)— Sec  Saltpetre. 

CHILLING — Giving  great  hardness  to  the  outside  of  cast 
iron  by  pouring  it  into  a  mould  made  of  iron  instead  of 
wood. 

CHIMNEYS  are  made  tall  in  order  to  maintain  a  large  hot 
fire.  The  hot  air  and  gases  ascend  the  chimney  at  the  rale  of 
50  to  60  feet  a  second,  and  the  velocity  of  the  ascending  cur- 
rent is  based  practically  on  the  square  root  of  the  height 
of  the  stack. 

Terra-cotta  tile,  sewer  pipe  or  hollow  bricks  are  not  suf- 
ficient protex:tion  by  themselves.     All  single  thickness  chim- 


84 


INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


neys  should  be  lined.  Wall  brackets  are  a  source  of  danger 
due  to  collapse  or  rupture,  unless  it  be  very  substantial  brick 

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corbelling.  Woodwork  should  not  enter  any  part  of  a  chim- 
ney or  cover  the  surface.  Smokepipes  should  enter  chimneys 
horizontally.     Chimneys  should  be  cleaned  once  a  year. 


CHINA   DECORATING  85 

The  main  cause  of  chimney  fires  is  the  accumulation  of 
soot.  Soot  is  nearly  pure  carbon  and  is  easily  fired  by  sparks 
from  a  wood  fire.  If  damp,  will  smoulder  for  hours  and  is 
liable  to  ignite  spontaneously.  Fires  are  sometimes  caused 
by  the  house  settling,  and  the  weight  of  the  wall  resting  on 
the  chimney  causes  the  bricks  to  loosen,  leaving  cracks  which 
afiford  a  means  of  sparks  communicating  to  woodwork.  See 
Bracket  Chimney;  also  Wall  Chimney. 

CHIMNEY  ON  FIRE— When  soot  has  been  ignited  by  a 
fire  it  can  be  extinguished  by  shutting  all  the  doors  of  the 
room,  so  as  to  prevent  any  current  of  air  and  then  throwing 
a  few  handfuls  of  common  salt  upon  the  fire  in  the  grate  or 
in  the  stove.  In  burning  the  salt,  muriatic  acid  gas  is  evofved, 
which  is  a  prompt  extinguisher  of  fire. 

CHIMNEY  OF  RADIAL  BRICK— Built  of  perforated 
radial  bricks,  varying  in  size,  and  made  from  refractory  clay 
of  great  heat  resistive  quality  and  crushing  strength.  Are 
specially  baked  or  burned  and  have  a  series  of  holes  in  them 
to  permit  even  burning.  Laid  up  in  cement  mortar.  The 
walls  are  reinforced  with  steel  bands.  When  built,  their 
perforations  form  a  dead  air  space  which  prevents  radiation. 
Better  workmanship  and  material  is  required  to  build  a  radial 
brick  chimney  which  adds  to  the  safety  of  a  plant. 

CHINA  DECORATING  OR  DECALCAMANIE— China 
is  first  sized  with  a  varnish,  part  resin  and  part  turps,  by 
hand  brush.  Design  is  then  pasted  on,  pressed  and  washed 
by  hand  with  same  material,  then  baked  in  kiln.  Designs  are 
on  paper  with  transfer  paper  called  decalcomanie.  See 
Crockery. 

CHINA  OIL  SILK — As  a  stock  is  very  inflammable  and 
susceptible.  Used  for  raincoats.  Apparently  use  parafifine  for 
impregnating  fabric. 

CHINATOWN  DWELLINGS— Fires  are  caused  and 
spread  by  swinging  gas  brackets  igniting  walls  covered  with 
Chinese  decorations,  such  as  festooned  paper,  knick-knacks, 
ornamental  wood  objects  and  prints,  also  ufisafe  stoves. 

CHINESE  OIL — Used  by  varnishers  on  woodwork,  ob- 
tained from  Chinese  nut  or  berry.  Inflammable.  Subject  to 
pontaneous  combustion. 


■ 


86  INSPECTION    AND     UNDERWRITING 

CHINESE -RESTAURANTS  are  seldom  insured  on  ac- 
count of  their  fire  record.  They  are  cleaner  than  the  general 
run  of  restaurants.  Very  little  frying  is  done,  which  reduces 
the  grease  fire  hazard. 

CHINESE  WAX — A  solid  wax  deposited  by  insects  on  the 
Chinese  ash  tree.     Melting  point  about  180  deg.  F. 

CHINESE  WOOD  OIL  (tung  oil)— Prepared  from  the 
nut  of  a  Chinese  tree.     Substitute  for  linseed  oil. 

CHIROPODISTS— Usually  occupy  small  places  on  an 
upper  floor.  May  have  unsafe  gas  stove.  Alcohol  is  used  ex- 
tensively. Salves  may  be  made  on  premises  and  heated  by 
direct  heat. 

CHLORATES,  NITRATES,  PEROXIDES— These  are  all 
hazardous,  owing  to  the  quantity  of  oxygen  which  they  evolve 
when  heated.  Most  of  them  can  be  detonated  or  exploded 
when  in  contact  with  starch,  sugar,  gum,  sweepings  or  dust, 
or  other  organic  matter,  or  sulphur  and  its  compounds. 
>  Are  apt  to  cause  explosion  by  friction,  concussion  or  high 
temperature,  and  should  be  kept  away  from  mineral  acids, 
carriers  of  oxygen,  organic  substances  and  sulphur.  (W.  D. 
Grier  in   Crosby-Fiske   Handbook  of  Fire   Protection.) 

CHLORATE  OF  ZINC— See  Zinc  Chlorate. 

CHLORATE  TABLETS  contain  potassium  chlorate.  Same 
hazard  as  other  chlorates  in  bulk. 

CHLOR-BENZOL— Flash   point  about  90  deg.   F. 

CHLORIDE  OF  CALCIUM  is  muriate  of  lime. 

CHLORIDE  OF  LIME  is  made  by  passing  chlorine  gas 
into  boxes  of  lead  in  which  a  quantity  of  slaked  lime  is  laid 
on  shelves.     Called  bleaching  powder. 

CHLORIDE  OF  PHOSPHORUS,  phosphorus  trichlo- 
ride, is  a  fuming  colorless  liquid.  Acts  strongly  on  organic 
matter  containing  great  heat. 

CHLORIDE  OF  POTASH  LOZENGES  are  highly  dan- 
gerous if  accidentally  brought  into  contact  with  an  unlighted 
phosphorus  match. 

chloride;  of  silicon  is  a  colorless  liquid  fuming 
strongly  in  air.  Mixed  with  water  it  is  decomposed,  forming 
hydrochloric  acid. 


CHLORIDES  87 

CHLORIDE  OF  SODA— See  Chloride  of  Lime. 

CHLORIDE  OF  SODIUM  is  common  salt. 

CHLORIDE  OF  SULPHUR,  sulphur  chloride,  is  a  cor- 
rosive fuming  liquid  used  as  solvent  for  rubber  in  vulcan- 
izing. 

CHLORIDES — All  the  compounds  of  the  gas  chlorine  are 
called  chlorides. 

CHLORINE — A  heavy,  greenish,  poisonous  gas  given  off 
in  some  processes  of  manufacture  and  by  bleaching  pow^der 
and  chloride  of  lime,  especially  in  the  presence  of  strong 
acids.  It  is  not  inflammable,  but  may  cause  fire  or  explo- 
sion if  in  contact  with  ammonia,  turpentine  or  finely  pow^- 
dered  metal.  Good  ventilation  necessary  where  gas  is  gen- 
erated. Used  as  a  bleaching  acid,  supports  combustion,  has 
a  strong  affinity  for  hydrogen,  but  little  for  carbon,  burns 
quickly  giving  off  a  white  smoke.  Can  be  made  with  two 
parts  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  a  trifle  more  of  chloride  of 
lime  or  bleaching  powder. 

CHLORITES  are  chlorous  acid  compounds. 

CHLOROFORM  may  be  obtained  by  heating  chloral  with 
potassium  nitrate,  or  by  distillating  a  mixture  of  alcohol, 
water  and  bleachmg  powder.     Burns  with  a  greenish  flame. 

CHOCOLATE  is  made  by  roasting  and  then  removing  the 
outer  shell  of  the  cocoa  bean  and  grinding  the  entire  bean. 
The  ground  substance  is  put  through  a  process  to  reduce  it 
to  a  pulp. 

CHORDS  IN  TRUSSES— The  top  member  and  the  main 
horizontal  tie  are  often  called  chords. 

CHROMATE  OF  ZINC  is  obtained  by  precipitating  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc  with  bichromate  of  potassium. 
U-sed  in  pigment  printing.  Chromates  are  of  themselves 
harmless.  When  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  they  will  ignite 
organic  matter. 

CHROMATES — Compounds  of  chromic  oxide  with  metals. 

CHROMES — Vandyke  browns,  artificially,  made  from  pig- 
nts,  sometimes  contain  lamp  black. 

Chrome  Green  or  Brunswick  Green — Made  of  prussian 
blue  and  chrome  yellow.     Somewhat  combustible  from  causes 


88  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

such  as  a  rise  in  temperature  in  a  dryer  or  friction  in  grinder. 

Chrome  Yellow — Made  from  solution  of  potassium  chro- 
mate  mixed  with  lead  acetate,  the  chrome  yellow  being* 
the  precipitate  (called  lead  chromate).  Sometimes  acids  arc 
used. 

Chromic  Acid — A  dye  used  in  calico  printing. 

CHURCHES — Of  ordinary  construction,  have  a  very  bad 
fire  record.  The  trouble  probably  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  re- 
main idle  and  without  heat  the  greater  part  of  the  week  and 
then  the  fires  are  forced  to  their  capacity  so  as  to  get  ready 
for  services.  Furring  and  concealed  spaces  play  a  large  part 
in  spreading  fires.  To  make  the  interior  attractive,  the  walls, 
recesses  and  pipe  channels  are  furred  out  to  make  a  smooth 
interior,  leaving  in  some  places  a  concealed  space  of  over  a 
foot  in  depth.  This,  and  the  numerous  hot  air  or  ventilating 
pipes  cause  the  fire  to  spread  and  soon  reach  the  attic  over 
the  hanging  ceiling  and  burn  off  the  roof,  which  in  col- 
lapsing tears  down  the  walls  and  wrecks  the  interior.  Vest- 
ments, altars  and  statuary  are  very  e:sj:pensive.  Fixed  marble 
work  and  stained  glass  wifidows  are  insured  with  the  build- 
ing and  may  form  considerable  of  the  building  value.  Fires 
have  been  caused  from  upsetting  candles,  defective  wiring 
and  other  common  causes. 

CHURCH  OIL  is  rape  oil  or  a  combination  of  rape  and 
mineral  oils.     Used  in  church  rituals. 

CHURN  DRILL — A  long  iron  bar  with  a  cutting  end  of 
steel.    Much  used  in  quarrying. 

CHUTE — An  inclined  slide,  open  or  enclosed,  used  for  con- 
veying material  from  one  level  or  floor  to  another  floor  level. 

CIGARETTE  MAKING— Inventions  and  improvements  in 
modern  machinery  render  this  process  principally  a  mechan- 
ical operation.  An  up-to-date  plant  has  automatic  cigarette 
machine  with  hopper  holding  the  tobacco  and  attachments 
which  grasp  the  required  amount  of  tobacco,  roll  it,  paste 
it,  clip  the  ends,  count  it.  The  paste  used  is  cold,  although 
some  makes  of  machines  have  a  small  gas  flame  which  dries 
the  wrapper  before  it  leaves  the  machine.  The  cork  tip  ma- 
chine rolls  a  piece  of  cork  around  the  cigarette  and  pastes  it, 


CIGARETTE   MAKING  *  89 

no  heat  used.  Tobacco  is  blended  in  a  revolving  drum,  en- 
closed in  a  wood  frame,  moistened  and  dried  in  separate  re- 
volving cylinders.  The  cylinder  is  on  an  inclined  axis  and 
delivers  the  tobacco  to  the  cigarette  machine.  "Textile"  dry- 
ers, as  used  in  v^oolen  mills,  are  used  for  drying  leaf  to- 
bacco. It  consists  of  a  very  long  traveling  belt  on  which  is 
placed  the  tobacco,  heated  by  steam  coils  and  hot  air  blown 
across  steam  coils,  all  enclosed  in  a  wooden  frame.  Hazards 
here  are  steam  pipes  and  dust  collecting  on  fans.  The  to- 
bacco is  ground  in  an  all-iron  machine  with  knife  grinder  and 
should  have  magnet  to  catch  metal  particles.  Cigarettes 
spoiled  in  the  making,  are  macerated  in  a  mill,  the  tobacco 
screened  out  and  used  again.  Storage  of  tobacco  should  be 
in  a  room  with  even  temperature,  so  that  it  will  not  dete- 
riorate. Paper  box  making  and  printing,  making  flour  paste 
in  steam  kettles,  cleaning  and  dusting  tobacco-drying  rooms, 
and  use  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  for  exterminating  vermin. 
See   Tobacco. 

CINDER  CONCRETE— See  Concrete. 

CIRCUIT  BREAKER— An  electrical  device,  manual  or 
automatic  for  interrupting  completely  the  flow  of  current  in 
a  circuit. 

CIRCULAR  SAW — A  woodworking  machine  with  the  saw 
in  the  center  of  a  flat  table  or  stand. 

CITY  LOTS— There  are  seventeen  city  lots,  25  by  100,  in 
an  acre. 

CITY  MAIN  OR  RESERVOIR  should  be  sufficient  to 
give  twenty-five  pounds  pressure  at  a  building.  A  pump  con- 
nected to  city  main  should  be  capable  of  providing  twenty- 
five  pounds  pressure  at  top  line  of  sprinklers.  Sec  Fire 
Pumps. 

CLAPBOARDS— Thin  boards,  thicker  on  on^  edge.  Used 
covering  the  walls  of  houses. 

CLARIFYING— See   Liquors. 

CLAROLIN — A  benzine  substitute,  classed  as  non-volatile. 

CLAY  is  derived  from  a  certain  kind  of  rock  called  feld^ 
spar.     When   feldspar  is   exposed   to  the   action   of   the   ele- 

tnts  it  crumbles  slowly  at  the  surface  and  the  little   par- 


90    .  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

tides  combine  with  a  certain  amount  of  water-forming  clay. 

CLAY  OR  LOAM— If  in  fine  state,  will,  if  suspended  in 
water,  put  out  a  fire  quicker  than  pure  water. 

CLEANING  COMPOUNDS— Usually  contain  gasoline  or 
other  inflammable  solvents.  Use  same  care  in  handling  as 
with  gasoline. 

CLEANING  ESTABLISHMENTS— See  Dry  Cleaning. 

CLEANING  MACHINERY  FOR  GRAIN— Should  either 
be  vented  to  the  outer  air,  or  else  provided  with  a  standard 
dust  collecting  system.  Machines  should  be  provided  with 
magnets  to  catch  metallic  substances. 

CLEARANCE — The  clear  space  or  uninterrupted  distance 
between  any  heating  apparatus  or  device  to  fixed  woodwork 
or  other  combustible  material.  Temporary  obstructions  are 
not  included. 

CLEAR  SPACE— Stock  should  not  be  placed  nearer  than 
2  feet  from  the  ceiling.  If  placed  directly  under  the  ceiling 
it  shuts  off  the  possibility  of  hose  streams  reaching  the  goods 
behind  the  same.  In  the  case  of  sprinklered  risks  it  ob- 
structs the  proper  distribution  of  water.     See  Aisles. 

CLIPPINGS — Cotton  or  woolen,  if  clean,  are  usually 
classed  as  desirable  insurance,  but  inspection  should  always 
be  made  to  determine  if  dirty  rags  or  paper  are  received 
along  with  the  clean  clippings.  If  sorting  is  done,  the  num- 
ber of  hands  should  be  noted,  also  whether  metal  receptacles 
are  used  under  the  screens  for  waste  material.  No  gas  lights 
should  be  permitted  over  sorting  tables.  Clippings  in  tailor 
shops  should  be  kept  in  metal  containers.     See  Rags. 

CLOAKS  AND  SUITS— Busiest  season,  February,  March 
and  April,  and  June  to  October.  (See  clothing  manufactur- 
ing.) 

CLOSED  VESSELS  that  have  been  standing  in  a  fire 
should  be  left  unopened  until  cool  inside  because  vapors  may 
have  been  generated  or  contents  undergone  partial  carbon- 
ization and  by  admitting  air  an  explosion  may  take  place  or 
spontaneous  ignition  follow. 

CLOSETS  IN  SPRINKLERED  RISKS  should  have  open, 
wire  mesh  or  paper-covered  tops  so  that  in  case  of  fire,  the 


COAL    GAS  91 

water  can  easily  wet  down  the  contents.  Closets  for  storage 
of  janitors'  or  porters*  rags  and  supplies  should  be  metal- 
lined  or  fire-proof.  Oily  waste  and  rags,  as  usually  found, 
are  likel}^  to  cause  spontaneous  combustion. 

CLOTHEL  REFRIGERATING  MACHINE— Direct  ex- 
pansion system  using  ethyl  chloride  for  refrigerant.  The  lat- 
ter is  highly  inflammable.  Used  in  small  units  and  at  low 
pressure. 

CLOTH  SPONGING— Use  high  temperature  live  steam 
rolls  for  shrinking  and  steaming.  The  goods  are  examined 
by  natural  light,  the  cloth  in  bolts  passing  over  drums  or 
frames.  This  class  is  usually  found  in  congested  districts  of 
the  garment  trade. 

CLOTHING  MANUFACTURING— See  Garment  Manu- 
facturing.    Poor  fire  record.     See  Sewing  Tables. 

CLOTHING  ON  FIRE— See  Fire  in  Person's  Clothing; 
also  Fireproofing  Children's  Clothing. 

CLOTHING  PRESSING— Many  small  shops  now  do  con- 
siderable power  pressing  by  contract.  Use  small,  but  high 
temperature,  gas  boiler  for  heating  power-pressing  machines. 
These  gas-heated  boilers  are  usually  poorly  set  and  near 
woodwork.     An  unattractive  class.     See  Pressing  Tables. 

CLUSTER  GAS  LAMPS  IN  FACTORIES— Should  have 
springs  to  take  up  vibrations  so  that  lamp  will  not  break  or 
become  weakened.  The  main  stem  is  broken  with  a  flexible 
connection,  made  at  right  angles  and  the  projecting  piece 
supported  by  a  spring  which  takes  up  the  weight  and  jar. 
The  distance  from  a  combustible  ceiling  should  not  be  less 
than  48  inches,  unless  protected  with  metal  and  asbestos 
shields. 

COAL — Anthracite  is  hard  coal.  Bituminous  is  soft.  Lig- 
nite and  peat  are  forms  of  coal  in  transition  state. 

COAL  GAS — Used  for  heating  or  illuminating;  is  made  by 
the  destructive  distillation  of  bituminous  (or  sometimes  hard) 
coal,  in  externally  heated  retorts,  usually  coke  fuel  is  used. 
The  gas  from  the  retorts  passes  through  a  standpipe,  the 
temperature  being  reduced  by  passing  the  gas  through  a 
■Hyater  or  weak  ammonia  liquor  seal  into  which  is  dipped  the 


92  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

standpipe.  Condensed  around  cold  water  pipes.  The  tar  and 
ammonia  is  extracted,  passing  through  a  series  of  screens 
under  water  pressure.  It  is  then  scrubbed  to  separate  the 
remaining  ammonia  and  napthalene  by  passing  the  gas 
through  coke  tower  or  through  a  horizontal  scrubber  in 
which  are  shafts  to  which  are  fastened  sticks  of  wood  which 
revolve  in  an  ammonia  solution.  After  oxide  purification, 
it  is  stored  in  gas  holders.  It  is  lighter  than  air  and  ascends 
rapidly. 

COAL  GAS  PRODUCERS— Pressure  Systems— All  pres- 
sure systems  must  be  located  in  a  special  building  or  build- 
ings approved  by  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction 
for  the  purpose,  at  such  distance  from  other  buildings  as  not 
to  constitute  an  exposure  thereto,  except  that  approved  pres- 
sure systems  without  gasometer  having  a  maximum  capacity 
not  exceeding  250  horse-power  and  pressure  in  generator  not 
exceeding  two  pounds,  may  be  located  in  the  building,  provid- 
ed that  the  generator  and  all  apparatus  connected  therewith 
be  located  in  a  separate  fireproof  room,  well-ventilated' to  the 
outside  of  the  building;  every  communication,  if  any,  to  be 
protected  by  an  approved  fire  door.  In  all  other  respects 
the  apparatus  must  comply  with  the  requirements  for  suction 
systems. 

Suction  Systems — Approved  suction  gas-producers  may 
be  located  inside  the  building,  provided  the  apparatus  for 
producing  and  preparing  the  gas  is  installed  in  a  well- 
ventilated  room.  At  no  time  shall  the  internal  pressure  of 
the  producer  be  in  excess  of  atmospheric  pressure. 

The  smoke  and  vent  pipe  shall,  where  practicable,  be  car- 
ried above  the  roof  of  the  building  in  which  the  apparatus  is 
contained,  and  above  adjoining  buildings.  When  buildings 
are  too  high  to  make  this  practicable  the  pipe  shall  end  at 
least  10  feet  from  any  wall  opening. 

No  smoke  nor  vent  pipe  shall  be  within  9  inches  of  any 
woodwork  or  any  wooden  lath  and  plaster  partition  or 
ceiling. 

Where  smoke  and  vent  pipes  pass  through  combustible 
partitions  they  shall  be  guarded  by  galvanized  iron  venti- 
lated thimbles  at  least  12  inches  larger  in  diameter  than  the 


1; 


COAL  93 

pipes,  or  by  galvanized  iron  thimbles  built  in  at  least  8 
inches  of  brickwork  or  other  incombustible  material.  They 
shall  not  under  any  circumstances  be  connected  into  chim- 
neys or  flues,  except  that  the  pipe  may  pass  up  in  flues  used 
for  no  other  purpose.  No  smoke  pipe  shall  pass  through 
any  floor  nor  through  a  roof  having  wooden  framework  or 
covering.' 

While  the  plant  is  not  in  operation  the  connection  between 
the  generator  and  scrubber  must  be  closed  and  the  connec- 
tion between  the  producer  and  vent  pipe  opened,  so  that 
the  products  of  combustion  can  pass  into  the  open  air. 
This  must  be  accomplished  by  means  of  a  mechanical  ar- 
rangement which  will  prevent  One  operation  without  the 
other. 

If  illuminating  or  other  pressure  gas  is  used  as  an  alterna- 
tive supply,  the  connections  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  make 
the  mixture  of  the  two  gases  or  the  use  of  both  at  the 
same  time  impossible. 

If  illuminating  or  other  pressure  gas  is  used  as  a  supple- 
mentary supply,-  mixing  of  the  two  gases  may  be  permitted 
if  a  suitable  device  is  provided  to  prevent  the  supplemental 
gas  from  entering  any  part  of  the  producer  gas  equipment, 
including  the  scrubber  or  purifier. 

The  opening  for  admitting  fuel  shall  be  provided  with 
some  charging  device  so  that  no  considerable  quantity  of 
air  can  be  admitted,  or  gas  escape,  while  charging. 

(Extracts  from  N.  F.  P.  A.  recommendations.) 

COAL,  ICE  AND  WOOD  DEALERS  usually  occupy 
basements  or  cellars  of  tenements,  the  dealers  being  largely 
a  foreign  element.  Unsafe  coal  stoves,  salamanders,  kero- 
sene oil  lamps,  swinging  gas  brackets  and  rubbish  consti- 
tute the  features  of  this  class. 

COAL  OIL— See  Kerosene. 

COAL  POCKETS — Motors  for  conveyors  usually  become 
fdusty,  and  sometimes  sparks  set  explosive  fires  in  coal  dust. 
Steam  engines  and  boilers  should  be  in  s-eparate  buildings. 
Garage  and  stable  hazard.  These  buildings  are  usually  high, 
shafty  and  open  to  all  winds. 

COAL,  POWDERED— Used  in    Portland    cement    rotary 


d4  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

kilns,  in  boilers  and  brick  kilns.  Injected  under  air  pressure 
into  a  flame  or  fire  and  produces  intense  heat.  Eliminates 
the  ash  hazard  as  almost  perfect  combustion  takes  place. 

COAL  SHORTAGE— A  n^ation-wide  coal  famine,  such  as 
experienced  during  the  winter  of  1917-18  greatly  increases 
the  fire  hazard.  In  all  classes  of  risks,  dwellings,  mercan- 
tile or  manufacturing,  tenants  endeavor  to  relieve  the  sit- 
uation by  using  improvised  and  often  unsafe  heating  appa- 
ratus. Wood  often  replaces  coal,  but  as  it  is  more  inflam- 
mable and  produces  a  more  intense  heat,  overheated  smoke 
pipes  and  stoves  result.  Even  salamanders  with  coal  fuel 
are  used  in  loft  buildings  and  kerosene  oil  stoves  in  garages. 
Sprinkler  equipments  are  rendered  inoperative  through 
freezing.  In  such  intense  weather  street  cleaning  depart- 
ments are  at  a  standstill.  ■  The  conveyances  for  carting  refuse 
become  frozen  with  wet  material  and  cannot  be  used,  barges 
become  frozen  and  ice-bound  and  cannot  be  towed  out  to 
sea  and  dumped,  and  men  will  not  work.  This  condition 
results  in  accumulations  of  refuse  and  rubbish  and  ashes  in 
cellars.  Fire  departments  are  handicapped  by  frozen  hy- 
drants, icy  and  slippery  streets  or  roads  and  physical  dis- 
comforts." 

COAL,  SOFT— Storage  should  be  kept,  if  possible,  well 
away  from  the  main  buildings  of  the  plant.  Under  no  cir- 
cumstances should  it  be  piled  up  against  a  frame  building. 

If  outside  space  will  permit,  the  piles  should  be  made 
low  and  flat  without  cone  effect  (not  higher  than  12  feet) 
and  of  large  area,  rather  than  of  small  area  and  piled  high. 

If  wet  coal  is  received,  it  should  be  dumped  around  the 
edges  of  the  pile,  or  in  some  location  where  the  air  can  get 
to  it  freely,  and  where  large  quantities  of  other  coal  will  not 
be  packed  on  top  of  it. 

COAL  STOVES  should  set  on  metal  which  should  extend 
12  inches  in  front  of  stove.  Where  stock  is  apt  to  come  in 
contact,  a  metal  shield  enclosure  should  be  provided.  For 
installation  of  temporary  kerosene  oil  burners,  see  Kerosene 
Burners.     See  Pot  Stoves. 

COAL  SUPPLY— See  Fuel. 

COAL  TAR — Obtained   during  the   distillation   of  coal   in 


DMixi«w        COCOA  rJM^zai  ^ 

the  manufacture  of  coal  gas.  Distillates  are  benzine  yielded 
at  temperature  of  85  deg.  C,  toluene  at  111  deg.  C,  phenol, 
cresol,  napthalene  and  benzole  between  150  and  210  deg.  C. 

COAL  TAR  DERIVATIVES— Coal  tar,  made  directly 
from  coal  or  from  crude  mineral  oil,  can  first  be  turned  into 
kerosene,  benzine,  naphtha,  gasoline,  refined  tar  or  pitch. 
From  these  oils  are  distilled  toluol,  phenol  (carbolic  acid), 
pyridine,  eresol,  anthracene  and  other  crude  products  for 
use  as  dyes,  explosives,  disinfectants  and  medicines.  By- 
product ovens  are  now  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coal  tar 
derivatives  instead  of  the  old  "beehive"  coke  ovens  of  the 
^teel  plants,  which  permitted  the  gas  and  tar  from  coal  to 
go  to  waste.     The  distilling  process  is  hazardous. 

COAMING — The  raised  curbing  surrounding  a  floor  open- 
ing to  prevent  water  from  overflowing  to  a  lower  level.  Also 
called  curbing. 

COAT  PAD  MANUFACTURING— Use  ordinary  sewing 
machines  and  power-cutting  knives.  Care  and  storage  of 
cotton  padding  important.  Usually  have  considerable  lint 
around  sewing  machines  and  on  floors.  Not  classed  as  de- 
sirable insurance  risks. 

COBALT— A  hard  metal. 

COBBLER'S  WAX,  lamp-black,  negrosine,  beeswax. 

COCA-BOLA — A  tropical  hardwood  used  in  making 
clarinets,  fifes  and  other  similar  instruments  as  a  s\il?^tit>|t?, 
for  African  black  wood.  :to<A  lyna  qoi 

COCAINE  is  a  white,  bitter  alkaloid  made  from  cpcoa 
leaves. 

COCK — A  kind  of  valve  for  the  discharge  of  liquids,  air. 
steam. 

COCK  LOFTS  and  roof  spaces.     See  Frame  Rows. 

COCOA  is  made  by  roasting  and  then  removing  the  shell 
from  the  chocolate  bean,  grinding  and  pressing,  which  forces 
all  fat  out  of  the  bean,  leaving  a  dry  substance.  The  fat  that 
is  pressed  out  of  the  bean  is  called  cocoa  butter. 

Cocoa  is  sometimes  used  in  candy  to  r-cplace  liquid  choc- 
olate. The  practice  of  each  candy  manufacturer  making 
his  own  cocoa  and  chocolate,  is  gradually  being  discon- 
tinued, owing  to  the  skilled  labor  required  to  obtain  the  de- 


96  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

sired  results  and  because  the  manufacturers  are  able  to  obtain 
cocoa  and  chocolate  from  large  factories,  practically  as 
cheap  as  they  can  make  it  themselves.  In  this  way  they 
also  eliminate  the  chance  they  have  previously  taken  in  not 
making  the  chocolate  the  right  consistency. 

COCOA  BUTTER— When  the  oil  from  cocoa  seeds  is 
separated  from  the  seed  itself  it  is  turned  into  cocoa  butter. 
Used  in  making  cosmetics. 

COCOA-MATTING— Made  from  fibre  which  is  "laid"  in 
rope  walk,  balled  by  twisting  on  hand-turned  balling  ma- 
chines, braided  into  strands  on  ordinary  braiding  machines, 
worked  into  matting  on  looms.  The  upper  side  combed  and 
the  uneven  edges  cut  evenly  with  shears.  Shears  are  iron 
rolls  on  which  are  sharp  edges  which,  rapidly  revolving, 
shear  off  the  edges.  These  and  the  combers  should  have 
blowers  to  carry  off  the  fine-cut  pieces  and  dust.  The  edges 
of  the  mats  are  sewed  on  ordinary  sewing  machines.  The 
mats  are  bleached  in  chloride  of  lime,  dyed  in  aniline  colors, 
then  dried.  Storage  of  large  quantities  of  fibre,  dyeing, 
bleaching,  drying,  shearing  and  combing  are  the  principal 
hazards.     (Avoid  this  class  if  possible.) 

COCOANUT  SHREDDING  consist  of  separating  the 
meat  from  the  shell  by  machinery,  shredding  in  attrition 
mills  and  drying  the  flake  in  "textile"  dryers.  Flake  may  be 
dried  on  steam  tables  or  in  large  cylinders  with  wire  mesh 
top  and  bottom.     (Always  inspect  this  class.) 

COEFFICIENT,  or  a  constant  friction,  safety  or  strength, 
etc.,  may  usually  be  taken  to  be  a  number  which  shows  the 
proportion  (or  rather  ratio)  which  friction,  safety,  tensile 
strength,  etc.,  bear  to  a  certain  something  else  which  is  not 
generally  expressed  at  the  time,  but  which  is  well  under- 
stood. 

COFFEE — A  bean,  the  preparation  of  which  for  market 
involves  serious  hazards,  namely,  shelling,  cleaning,  and  pol- 
ishing by  power  machinery;  also  roasting  by  direct  fire 
heat.     Coffee  in  the  bean  is  considered  good  insurance. 

COFFEE  AND  TEA  STORES— Note  whether  the  bulk  of 
stock  is  in  metal  containers  well  covered,  also  the  setting  of 


COLD    STORAGE    FIRES  '  ft7 

the  small  coffee  roaster  and  how  the    packing  material  is  kept. 

COFFEE  ROASTING  processes  consist  of  shelling,  clean- 
ing, roasting,  polishing,  cooling  and  bagging.  Inspectors 
should  carefully  examine  constru,ction  of  roasters  and  also  de- 
scribe the  setting,  whether  fireproof  or  non-fireproof  floor 
and  kind  of  ceiling  over  the  roaster. 

The  blowers  attached  to  the  cooling  pans  should  be  vented 
to  the  outer  air.  • 

COFFEE  WAREHOUSE— At  a  recent  fire  in  a  paint  and 
oil  risk  adjoinitig  a  coffee  warehouse,  pungent  fumes  from 
the  burning  paint  and  oil  poured  into  the  coffee  ware- 
house. Although  no-  fire  oi*  water  entered  the  warehouse,  a 
large  loss  was  paid  on  coffee.     See  Exposures. 

COFFER-DAM— An  enclosure  built  in  the  water  and  then 
pumped  dry  so  as  to  permit  masonry  or  other  work  to  be 
carried  on  inside  of  it. 

COFFINS — Manufacturing;  carpenter  shop  hazard,  cotton 
and  excelsior  for  stuffing,  gluing,  sewing  machines,  painting 
and  varnishing,  metal  working.  Fires  in  this  class  usually 
very  severe,  owing  to  the  highly  varnished  stock  of  a  com- 
bustible nature. 

COIR — A  sort  of  yarn  derived  from  the  husks  of  cocoa- 
nuts. 

COKE  is  the  solid  material  left  after  evaporating  the  vola- 
tile ingredients  of  coal  by  means  of  the  destructive  distilla- 
tion of  coal  in  closed  retorts.  Used  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron  and  steel. 

COLD  AIR  BOXES  of  furnaces  should  be  metal  rather 
than  of  wood.  If  metal  for  a  distance  of  4  feet  from  the 
furnace,  the  wood  is  not  a  very  serious  feature. 

COLD  STORAGE — An  atmosphere  maintained  below 
freezing  for  the  preservation  of  meat,  etc.,  which  are  apt  to 
putrefy.     See  Bunker  Rooms, 

COLD  STORAGE  FIRES  require  tons  of  water,  that  is, 
enough  to  thoroughly  drench  the  entire  mass.  A  small 
amount   really   assists   the    fire. 

In  New  York  City  a  firm  recently  converted  the  fireproof 
cold  storage  building  of  a  brewery  into  fur  cold  storage, 
estimating  that   as   much   as   ten   millions   of   dollars   worth 


98  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  furs  could  be  stored  therein.  The  owners  of  the  furs 
preferred  that  the  building  be  not  sprinklered,  because  the 
water  damage  would  ruin  the  stock.  Fires  have  been  known 
to  expand  the  cold  air  pipes  to  such  an  extent  as  to  burst 
the  walls  of  the  building.  See  Ammonia  Gas.  See  Conse- 
quential Loss. 

COLLAR  BEAM— A  horizontal  beam  below  the  apex  of 
the  roof,  stretching,  between  every  alternate  pair  of  rafters 
which  meet  at  the  top. 

COLLAR,  CUFF  AND  SHIRT  FACTORIES— Hazard 
that  of  white  goods  manufacturing,  such  as  cutting,  shrink- 
ing and  sewing.  Clothing  shrunk  in  steam  rooms.  Launder- 
ing. Small  press  for  printing  maker's  name  on  goods.  Dry- 
rooms.  Collar-shaping  machines,  and  other  machinery  same 
as  used  in  collar  and  cuff  laundries.  Incidental  hazards  are 
paper  box  making,  wood  box  making,  machine  repair  shop. 
See  Laundries. 

COLLAR  SUPPORTERS— Used  by  women  for  support- 
ing lace  collars.  Made  of  wire,  cut  and  crimped,  immersed 
in  dilute  muriatic  acid  and  water,  washed  in  water,  dipped 
in  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium  and  water  as  a  galvanic 
process.  Dipped  into  paint,  dried,  coated  (dip  process)  with 
celluloid.  Hazards  of  dip  process,  painting,  coating  with 
celluloid.  Turpentine  used  as  thinner  for  paint,  acetone  for 
celluloid.  Scrap  celluloid,  gas-heated  drying  ovens,  open 
lights  near  liquid  celluloid. 

COLLEGES— See  Academies. 

COLLODION — Gun  cotton  dissolved  in  alcohol  and 
ether.  Used  in  photo-engraving.  Very  inflammable.  Vapor 
is  explosive  when  mixed  with  air.  Open  flames  or  lights 
prohibited.     Flash  point  40  deg.  F. 

COLOGNE  SPIRITS— See  Grain  Alcohol. 

COLONIAL  WALL  BOARDS— A  product  of  calcined 
gypsum,  fibred  with  wood  and  containing  small  percentage 
of  Portland  cement  and  hydrated  lime  formed  into  32  or 
36  inch  slabs  or  sheets. 

COLOR  PRINTING— Lithographing  hazard. 

COLOR  WORKS — Colors  made  by  precipitation.  Mate- 
rials   such    as    sulphuric^    muriatic    and    fortis   acid,    mineral 


COMBUSTION  99 

salts,  copperas,  zinc  white,  cyanide  potassium,  chloride  of 
potash,  bi-chromate  of  lime,  nitrate  of  soda,  and  soda  ash 
are  placed  in  dissolving  vats,  drained  to  settling  tanks  v^here 
water  is  pumped  out.  Liquid  colors  are  pumped  to  filters, 
placed  on  trays  and  dried  in  dry  rooms.  They  are  ground 
in  mills  and  pulverized,  sifted  and  packed.  See  Aniline 
Colors. 

COLORED  FIRE  or  tableau  usually  contains  chlorate 
and  often  sulphur.     Highly  inflammable. 

COLUMBIAN  SPIRITS— See  Wood  Alcohol.  Flash  point 
44  deg.  F. 

COLZA  OIL  is  rape  oil. 

COLUMN — Sometimes  called  a  post.  A  pillar,  built' up 
of  steel  members. 

COMBINATION  RED  FIRE  ALARM  BOX— Used  for 
watchman  to  record  his  hourly  rounds.  If  watchman  fails 
to  record  a  certain  round,  a  man  from  the  central  station  is 
despatched  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  delay.  The  same  box 
is  used  for  sending  in  a  fire  alarm. 

COMBS— See  Celluloid.  ^r 

-  COMBUSTION— What  we  usually  call  combustion  at- 
tends the  union  of  oxygen  with  some  other  substance,  either 
solid  or  gaseous,  as  with  carbon  and  hydrogen.  We  gen- 
erally only  use  the  term  combustion  when  it  is  accompanied 
by  heat  and  light,  and  yet  the  union  of  oxygen  with  other 
things  often  takes  place  without  producing  any  light.  This 
is  when  the  union  takes  place  slowly — thus  iron  rusts,  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  unites  with  it,  but  so  slowly  that  no  light 
is  given  out — there  is  heat,  but  so  little  of  it  that  it  cannot 
be  felt  because  the  union  is  so  slow.  It  is  very  slow  fire. 
When  a  man  paints  his  iron  fence  to  keep  it  from  rusting, 
he  really  keeps  it  from  getting  burned.  In  this  same  man- 
ner, water  puts  out  fire.  It  shuts  out  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
from  the  burning  substance.  It  acts  much  as  the  paint  acts 
on  the  iron.  (Hooker's  Chemistry.)  See  How  Water  Puts 
Out  Fire. 

COMBUSTION  ENGINES— See  Gas,  Gasoline,  Kerosene 
and  Fuel  Oil  Engines. 

COMMERCIAL  PHOTOGRAPHY— Use  collodion  in  wet 


100  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

plate  photography,  which  is  occasionally  mixed  on  the 
premises. 

COMMERCIAL  REPORTS— Reports  from  bureaus  as  to 
the  financial  standing  of  individuals  or  firms.  See  Trade 
Reports. 

COMMISSION  CLAUSE— Covers  the  property  of  the  in- 
sured and  his  interest  in  the  property  of  others,  such  as  ad- 
vances and  storage  charges.  The  words  "held  in  trust"  have 
in  some  cases  been  given  a  very  liberal  interpretation  by  the 
courts. 

COMMISSION  MERCHANT— One  who  sells  merchan- 
dise on  a  commission  basis. 

COMMISSIONS  AND/OR  PROFITS  insurance  indem- 
nifies for  loss  of  prospective  profit  or  commission  on  mer- 
chandise or  manufactured  goods.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
forms  (per  diem  and  percentage).     See  Profit  Insurance. 

COMMON  CARRIERS  INSURANCE— This  insurance  is 
to  indemnify  the  insured  for  their  legal  liability,  if  any,  to 
the  amount  they  are  obliged  to  pay  on  such  merchandise  in 
their  care  by  reason  of  loss  or  damage  by  fire. 

COMMON  HAZARD  means  carelessness,  unsafe  chim- 
neys, ashes  in  wood  receptacles  and  the  hazards  of  light, 
heat  and  power,  as  found  in  all  risks.     See  Hazard. 

COMMON  RAFTERS— See  Jack  Rafters. 

COMMUNICATION — An  opening  from  one  building  to 
another,  directly  or  indirectly  by  an  enclosed  passageway. 
A  standard  communication  requires  an  automatic  "labelled" 
fire  door  on  each  side  of  the  wall.     See  Cut-off. 

COMPOSITION  FLOORINGS  are  composed  of  differ- 
ent mixtures  containing  such  materials  as  asbestos,  magne- 
site,  sawdust,  sand,  magnesium  chloride,  etc.,  and  are  sold 
under  such  names  as  Alignum,  Asbestolith,  Asbestos  Gran- 
ite, Rex,  Sanita,  Monolith,  etc.     See  Flooring  (composition). 

COMPO-BOARD  FACTORIES.— The  lumber  is  dried  and 
reduced  to  slats  about  a  quarter  inch  thick.  These  slats  are 
then  laid  flat  and  indiscriminately  as  to  grain,  after  which 
straw-board  is  glued  on  either  side  so  as  to  form  a  large  flat 
board.  Sometimes  the  straw-board  is  treated  with  a  ce- 
ment or  gompositipii  Qf  resin,  whiting  and  wax  to  harden  it 


COMMUNICATXON-^OPENINGS 


101 


and  render  it  water-prooi     Th^e-ha^ard^  are*  ihg£Te,'iif  wood- 
working risks.     See   Fireboard. 

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Copyright.    1916,   G.    A.    Ins.    Co. 

COMPOUND   (chemically)  refers  to  a  substance  contain- 
ing two  or  more  elements  chemically  united  in  such  a  way 


IW  INSPEGTiON    Al^TD    aNDERWRITING 

that  the"  properties  of  the  compound  substance  bear  no  re- 
semblance to  those  of  any  of  its  constituents/ 

COMPOUND — An  expression  used  by  underwriters  to  in- 
dicate a  risk  having  many  manufacturing  hazards  under  one 
roof;  usually  a  loft  building. 

COMPOUNDING— See  Liquors. 

COMPRESSED  GAS  CYWNDERS  must  not  be  exposed 
to  the  rays  of  the  sun  or  any  heated  body.  All  gases  are 
subject  to  the  law  that  pressure  increases  uniformly  with 
the  temperature  where  the  volume  remains  the  same. 

COMPRESSION  AND  TENSION— If  two  opposite  forces 
are  simultaneously  imparted  to  a  body  in  the  same  straight 
line  the  stress  is  either  compressive  (when  the  forces  act 
towards  each  other)  or  tensile  (when  they  act  from  each 
other). 

COMPRESSION   SYSTEM— See   Refrigerating. 

COMPRESSIVE  STRESS  tends  to  push  the  particles 
closer  together. 

COMPROMISE  "MILL"— A  term  used  to  express  the 
construction  of  a  building  which  is  below  the  standard  of 
"mill  construction"  and  above  the  ordinary  construction.  The 
timbers  are  of  smaller  dimensions  than  mill  and  the  spans 
are  of  less  distance  apart. 

CONCRETE  is  a  mixture  of  Portland  cement,  sand  and 
stone  or  cinders.  In  the  Edison  Phonograph  Co.  fire  at  West 
Orange,  N.  J.,  in  1916,  the  concrete  buildings  showed  su- 
periority over  alj  other  forms  of  fireproof  construction. 
Concrete  partially  injured  by  fire  may  set  again  and 
become  hard,  if  there  is  a  gradual  cooling  off  of  the  surface 
and  if  no  water  is  applied;  but  this  result  cannot  always  be 
relied  upon. 

CONCRETE,  CINDER— An  excellent  fire  resistive  ma- 
terial for  floor  arches  in  fireproof  construction,  providing  the 
cinders  are  of  uniform  size,  free  from  dirt  and  refuse  and 
contain  not  more  than  15  per  cent,  of  unburned  coal.  For 
good  work  the  cinders  should  be  ground  before  the  other 
ingredients  (sand  and  cement)  are  added.  O^IMOD 

CONCRETE-COVERED  FLOORS— Numerous  fires  have 


CONCRETE  .:'Al  1«3 

occurred  under  dry  kilns  and  hotel  or  restaurant  ranges  which 
have  been  built  on  concrete-covered  wood  floors  laid  with- 
out air  space,  even  though  the  concrete  was  three  to  twelve 
inches  thick.  The  continuous  heat  slowly  reduces  the  wood 
to  charcoal  and  produces  spontaneous  combustion  at  a  low 
temperature.  The  same  principle  applies  to  the  flooring 
around  anvils  and  forges  due  to  the  continuous  dropping 
of  hot  iron  on  wood.  Metal-covered  floors  are  necessary 
at  anvils  and  forges. 

CONCRETE  FOR  CELLAR  FLOORS— One  part  of 
good  domestic  cement,  one  part  clean,  sharp,  gritty  sand 
and  five  parts  of  best  clean,  coarse  gravel,  thoroughly 
washed,  or  clean,  broken  stone  (small  enough  to  pass 
through  a  2-inch  ring),  the  latter  preferably.  All  to  be  by 
measure,  thoroughly  mixed  and  water  then  added. 

CONCRETE,  REINFORCED— Reinforcement  consists  of 
plain  bars,  bars  with  lugs,  twisted  bars,  those  having  fins 
or  protrusions,  woven  wire  fabric,  expanded  metal,  per- 
forated sheet  metal.  Aggregates  used  are  rock,  stone,  gravel, 
cinders,  broken  bricks  or  tile,  slag.  Buildings  are  erected  in 
yarious  types  of  construction,  columns  of  concrete,  walls  or 
floor  arches  of  concrete,  or  combinations  of  terra-cotta 
arches,  curtain  walls,  etc.,  with  concrete  supporting  mem- 
bers, or  all  concrete.  Buildings  of  this  latter  character  are 
rigid,  sanitary,  durable,  fireproof.  They  have  disadvantages, 
such  as  faulty  design  resulting  in  collapse  or  cannot  be  used 
for  intended  purposes,  careless  workmanship  resulting  in  in- 
ferior construction;  dishonesty  on  part  of  contractor  result- 
ing in  small  percentage  of  cement  and  therefore  weakening 
of  structure;  expensive  to  alter,  owing  to  solidity  of  material 
when  once  hardened;  floors  and  walls  apt  to  become  "dusty" 
due  to  drying  of  concrete  which  has  too  small  a  percentage 
of  cement  as  binder  and  too  much  sand,  or  materials  of 
poor  quality  or  not  thoroughly  mixed.  Building  collapse  or 
failure  due  to  removal  of  forms  too  quickly  before  the  con- 
crete haif  'feet  properly;  frozen  concrete;  overloading  new 
structures;  electrolysis. 
,   CONDENSER — An    apparatus    for    changing    vapor    into 


104  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

liquid,  usually  a  series  of  iron  coils,  cooled  by  running  cold 
water. 

CONDENSER,  STEAM— A  part  of  a  steam  plant  in 
which  the  steam,  after  doing  its  work  by  expansion  in  the 
cylinders,  is  condensed  by  coming  in  contact  with  a  jet  of 
cold  water  or  with  the  outer  surface  of  tubes  in  which  cold 
water   circulates. 

CONDUIT,  RIGID — Sometimes  known  as  galvanic  duct 
and  loricated.  A  rigid  steel  pipe  chemically  treated  for  the 
express  purpose  of  providing  a  concealed  method  of  running 
electric  wires  from  place  to  place  and  so  confining  these 
wires  as  to  prevent  any  fire  resulting  from  short  circuits. 

CONDUIT  SYSTEMS  of  electric  wiring  are  far  superior 
to  open  work,  for  the  reason  that  the  wires  are  better  pro- 
tected against  mechanical  injury  and  also  because  novices 
cannot  very  easily  tamper  with  the  installation. 

CONES  AND  WAFERS— Made  of  flour,  lard  and  sugar, 
mixed  and  baked.  Machinery  consists  of  gas-heated  moulds, 
revolving  automatic  bakers  and  lard  heaters.  See  Wafers 
and  Cones. 

CONFECTIONERS— Have  motor  or  gas  engine  or  boiter 
for  power  for  ice-cream  machine  and  ice  cracker.  Gas  stoves 
and  gas  candy  warmers  used  in  candy  manufacturing  should 
be  properly  protected. 

CONFECTIONERS'  STOVE— A  round  iron  or  sheet 
metal  stove  with  open  or  removable  top  to  accommodate 
large  kettles.     Gas,  coal  or  charcoal  fuel. 

CONFETTI  is  made  of  paper.  The  sheet  paper  is  run 
through  a  perforator.  The  process  is  not  hazardous,  but 
the  premises  are  usually  filled  with  loose  waste  paper,  pre- 
senting a   very  untidy  appearance. 

CONFLAGRATION  BLAST— If  you  light  a  match  the 
flame  will  mount  so  high.  Light  a  second  and  a  third  match, 
hold  them  beside  the  first  and  the  flame  will  mount  succes- 
sively higher.  Blow  gently  upon  the  flame  and  it  will  have 
a  steady  striking  range  of  an  inch  or  more.  Now,  if  you 
have  a  quarter  mile  of  buildings  all  afire  at  once,  the  uniting 
flame  from  them  will  reach  to  a  height  corresponding  to 
the  area  of  the  fire,  and  correspondingly  great  must  be  its 


106  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

Striking  range.  In  San  Francisco  in  the  language  of  one  of 
the  official  reports:  "Until  the  wind  arose  the  heated  col- 
umn reached  almost  half  a  mile  in  height."  (Arthur  E.  Mc- 
Farlane.)     See  Flames. 

CONFLAGRATION  BREEDERS  (remedy  for)  — 
First,  that  owners  of  existing  buildings  (defectively  con- 
structed), which  are  so  located  as  to  form  conflagration 
areas,  be  required  to  suitably  protect  roof,  floors,  party 
walls,  and  exposed  openings.  Second,  that  automatic 
sprinkler  equipment  with  outside  Siamese  hose  connections 
and  controlling  valve  near  the  main  in  the  street  be  re- 
quired in  all  buildings  which  by  reason  of  their  size,  con- 
struction or  occupancy,  singly  or  combined,  might  act  as 
conflagration  breeders.  (National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers.) 

CONFLAGRATION  PROBLEM— Extracts  from  address 
by  Franklin  H.  Wentworth,  Secretary,  National  Fire  Protec- 
tion Association,  before  the  Newark  Association  of  Credit 
Men: 

There  is  a  way  to  solve  this  conflagration  problem — not 
absolutely,  but  at  least  relatively.  You  cannot  be  expected 
to  tear  down  your  city  and  rebuild  it  of  fire-resisting  mate- 
rial; or  even  to  tear  down  enough  buildings  to  allow  broad 
streets  or  parkways — by  which  open  spaces,  conflagrations 
might  be  arrested.  The  cities  must  be  protected  as  they 
stand.  What  then  can  be  done  by  you  beside  furnishing  wa- 
ter supplies  and  fire  departments;  keeping  your  eity  free 
from  rubbish,  and  prohibiting  forever  and  always  the  shingle 
roof  as  if  it  were  a  public  crime?  I  would  suggest  this  plan: 
In  the  heart  of  nearly  every  city  there  are  streets  crossing  at 
right  angles,  along  which  for  a  very  considerable  distance 
are  buildings  of  brick,  stone  or  concrete.  Looked  at  upon 
the  map  this  shows  a  more  or  less  complete  Maltese  cross  of 
buildings  which  are  not  wooden,  and  v^hich  operate  to  divide 
the  wooden-built  district  into  quarter  sections,  and  which 
might  hold  a  fire  in  any  one  of  these  sections  if  they  were 
equipped  to  do  so.  These  brick  and  stone  buildings  are 
ordinarily  valueless  as  firestops,  because  their  windows  are 
of  thin  glass  and  their  window-frames  of  wood.     At  Chelsea 


CONFLAGRATION^    '  ^  >  r,-,,  ^^^ 

the  conflagration  attacked  such  buildings  easily,  breaking 
out  the  panes,  consuming  the  frames  and  converting  every 
story  of  these  brick  structures  into  horizontal  flues  full  of 
combustible  contents.  Brick  and  stone  buildings  are  logical 
and  capable  firestops  if  the  fire  can  be  kept  out  of  them. 
If  you  will  trace  out  your  Maltese  cross  of  such  buildings 
and  equip  them  v^ith  hollow  metal  window-frames  and  vvired 
glass,  you  will  immediately  possess  the  equivalent  of  sub- 
stantial fire  walls  crossing  at  right  angles  in  the  centre  of 
your  city,  dividing  it  into  four  sections.  By  such  a  simple, 
inexpensive,  but  yet  strategic  procedure  you  may  be  able  to 
save  your  city  from  destruction  which  now  awaits — only 
the  right  kind  of  a  fire  on  the  right  kind  of  a  night. — Prank- 
lin  H.  Wentworth.  ^•i.-iw. 

The  prohibition  of  the  shingle  roof,  which  is  now  g^ti^ratly 
recognized  as  a  conflagration  breeder,  is  today  almost  uni- 
versal within  city  fire  limits,  and  from  the  more  enlightened 
communities  it  is  excluded  altogether.  Burning  shingles  can 
be  carried  great  distances  by  the  wind  or  draught  of  a  con- 
flagration, and  when  they  may  alight  in  their  turn  upon  other 
dry  shingles  they  make  fearful  havoc. 

CONFLAGRATIONS— Double  fire  engine  companies  are 
valuable  in  congested  sections,  the  second' company  being 
available  for  second  alarms  or  as  a  reserve  to  answer  calls 
to  simultaneous  fires  in  the  same  district,  thus  rendering 
unnecessary  the  calling  of  apparatus  from  other  districts. 

CONGOLEUM  is  a  form  of  linoleum  in  which  a  composi- 
tion is  used  in  place  of  cork.  '^'."'/'^  "  '  ' 

CONNECTING  ROD— A  piece  which  connects' a  "crank 
with  something  which  moves  or  to  which  it  gives  motion 

CONSEQUENTIAL  LOSS  IN  COLD  STORAGE 
RISKS — According  to  some  underwriters'  bureau,  if  a  cold 
storage  building  contains  a  source  of  refrigeration,  no  clause 
is  necessary  on  the  policies  assuming  consequential  loss  and 
no  additional  charge  is  made  in  the  rating.  If  the  source  of 
refrigeration  is  derived  from  the  outside,  the  policies  must 
either  include  or  exclude  the  consequential  loss  by  th'i.tise  of 
the  following  clauses: 

Clause  No.  1  excludes  the  consequential  loss. 


108  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Clause  No.  2  includes  the  consequential  loss  with  an  addi- 
tional permit  charge. 

The  insurance  companies  in  order  to  avoid  payment  for  a 
consequential  loss  occasioned  through  partial  or  total  dis- 
ablement of  a  refrigerating  plant  (except  when  same  is  lo- 
cated in  the  insured  building)  demand  clause  No.  1  on  the 
policy.  If  it  is  desired  to  cover  against  consequential  loss, 
clause  No.  2  is  attached  and  the  premiuni\ advanced. 

Up-to-date  refrigeration  plants  should  have  "duplicate"  re- 
frigeration systems.  Not  long  ago  a  fire  broke  out  in  the 
cold  storage  stores,  2286-2298  Twelfth  avenue,  New  York 
City,  which  are  equipped  with  a  duplicate  refrigeration  sys- 
tem. Only  a  very  slight  consequential  loss  was  sustained 
owing  to  the  temperatures  rising  from  33  deg.  F.  to  51  deg.  F. 
The  damage  was  greatest  in  the  basement  refrigerators,  due 
to  the  presence  of  the  water  on  the  floor,  which  quickly  ab- 
sorbed the  cold  air  in  the  rooms,  while  on  the  upper  floors 
very  little  damage  resulted,  owing  to  the  frost  on  the  piping 
and  the  insulation  of  the  refrigerator  walls,  floors  and 
ceilings  maintaining  a  sufficiently  low  temperature  to  prevent 
serious  damage  until  the  auxiliary  plant  was  put  in  opera- 
tion.    See  Cold  Storage. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  a  city  characterized  by  uncleanli- 
ness,  the  apotheosis  of  filth,  the  most  fire-stricken  city  of 
the  world,  has  burned  down  ten  times  since  1792.  It  seems 
unnecessary  to  state  that  over  50  per  cent,  of  all  fires  are 
caused  by  untidiness  coupled  with  carelessness. 

CONTINGENT  LIABILITY— In  New  York  City  if  a 
frame  building  is  damaged  more  than  one-half  of  the  value, 
exclusive  of  foundations,  the  building  cannot  be  repaired  or 
rebuilt  but  must  be  torn  down.  To  offset  this,  policies  can 
be  written  to  include ,  liability  for  loss  occasioned  by  the 
operation  of  ordinances  or  laws  requiring  the  replacement 
of  entire  buildings  in  case  of  fire  damage  exceeding  a 
given  percentage  of  value,  the  rate  on  such  buildings  being 
double  the  regular  fire  rate.  The  endorsement  should  rpad: 
*Tt  is  understood  and  agreed  that  the  fire  limit  laws  is  one 
of  the  hazards  insured  against  loss."  See  Tax  Lien  Insur- 
ance. 


CONTRACTORS  100 

CONSTRUCTION— The  difference  between  a  frame  build- 
ing and  one  of  ordinary  brick  is  the  walls.  The  difference 
between  a  brick  building  and  one  of  fireproof  construction 
is  the  floors. 

CONTOUR,  to  follow  closely,  as  for  example,  covering 
the  beams  of  a  floor  so  completely  as  to  cover  all  accessible 
parts  of  the  beam.     Metal  or  asbestos  generally  used. 

CONTRACTORS — Subway,  tunnel  or  other  underground 
work.  Usually  occupy  light  temporary  frame  structures. 
The  heating  and  lighting  arrangements  are  make-shifts. 
Workmen  have  rooms  where  they  smoke  and  have  wooden 
lockers  for  their  clothing.  These  risks  sometimes  have 
power  plants  with  air  compressors,  large  motors,  switch- 
boards, transformers,  machine  shops,  oil  and  gasoline  stor- 
age sheds.  Fire  on  January  28th,  1917,  of  the  Degnon 
Contracting  Company  was  probably  caused  by  spontaneous 
combustion  of  oily  overalls  in  wooden  lockers.  Fire  swept 
through  entire  plant,  putting  entire  electrical  apparatus  out 
of  commission. 

CONTRACTORS'  STABLES  are  not  considered  as  good 
as  ordinary  stables,  as  they  have  a  considerable  amount  of 
shoring  material,  tackle,  hoisting  engines  and  paraphernalia. 

CONVECTION— Property  of  matter  controlling  the  rate 
of  transmission  of  heat,  i.e.,  if  a  bar  of  iron  is  heated  at  one 
end,  the  heat  will  be  conducted  rapidly  to  the  other  end, 
whereas  a  rod  of  glass  can  be  heated  to  melting  point  with- 
out the  opposite  end  becoming  heated. 

CONVENTS  are  classed  same  as  boarding-schools.  See 
Schools. 

CONVERTER  OF  COTTON  GOODS— One  who  buys 
goods  in  the  "gray"  or  unfinished  state  and  dyes  or  other- 
wise conditions  them  into  finished  goods. 

COOKING  AND  HEATING  APPARATUS  (oil  burn- 
ing) usually  have  an  auxiliary  supply  tank  of  about  five 
gallons  capacity.  They  should  be  ten  feet  from  burners  and 
have  overflow  pipe  draining  back  to  main  supply;  also  a 
vent  pipe.  These  equipments  introduce  an  additional  hazard, 
and  care  must  be  exercised  in  their  maintenance.  Only  ap- 
proved apparatus  should  be  installed.  Burners  must  have  an 


lAQ  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

overflow  pipe  arranged  to  draw  off  any  excess  oil  by  gravity 
to  a  reservoir.  No  dampers  to  be  used  in  smoke  pipe  be- 
tween burner  and  chimney.  All  parts  must  be  kept  clean 
and  the  apparatus  not  used  when  not  in  proper  order.  Un- 
less installed  rigidly  in  a  fixed  place  the  handling  is  apt'  to 
loosen  joints   and   fittings. 

COOPERAGES  are  shops  for  assembling  staves,  hoops, 
heads  and  bottoms,  producing  barrels  and  pails.  Regular 
wood-working  hazard;  also  use  direct  fire  heat,  or  in  some 
cases  steam  for  bending,  shaping  and  setting  the  parts.  This 
class  should  be  written  cautiously.  Second-hand  (recooper- 
ing)  considered  very  undesirable  by  most  underwriters.  See 
Barrel  Storage. 

COP — The  top  or  head  of  a  thing.  The  conical  roll  of 
thread  formed  on  the  spindle  of  a  spinning  machine. 

COP  YARN  (used  for  weaving  cloth) — A  loose-twisted 
thread  of  cotton,  silk,  wool  or  mixture. 

,  COPING — The  flat  stones,  iron  or  terra-cotta  tile  placed 
on  top  of  a  wall  to  protect  it  from  the  weather. 

COPPER — A  metal  of  red  color  which  does  not  tarnish 
or  oxidize  easily. 

COPRA — The  dried,  broken  kernel  of  the  cocoanut  after 
it  is  split  and  ready  for  shipment. 

CORBEL — A  bracket  usually  of  brick,  consisting  of  sev- 
eral courses  built  out  from  the  face  of  a  wall  usually  for  a 
chimney  support. 

CORDAGE— See  Fibre. 

CORDEAU  DETONANT  is  a  fuse  consisting  of  a  thin- 
walled  lead  tube  filled  with  trinitoluol. 

CORDITE — A  form  of  gun  cotton.     Very  explosive. 

CORDUROY  is  not  easily  damaged  by  clean  water  pro- 
viding the  material  is  a  good  grade.  The  cheaper  grades  are 
coated  with  a  gummy  substance  and  do  not  allow  much  sal- 
vage if  thoroughly  wet. 

CORE — Anything  serving  as  a  mould  around  which  some- 
thing else  is  to  be  formed. 

CORE  OVENS  are  usually  constructed  of  brick  with  per- 
forated metal  floors  and  are  either  heated  by  hard  coal  fires, 
fuel  oil  or  gas.     Flasks  should  never  be  placed  (if  of  wood), 


CORK  BOARDS  COMPOSITION  111 

on  top  of  the  ovens.  The  fire  record  shows  15.3  per  cent,  of 
foundry  fires  are  traceable  to  core  ovens.  The  heating  of 
the  ovens  in  drying  the  cores,  which  are  sometimes  mixed 
with  a  molasses  compound,  drives  off  a  heavy  smoke  which 
causes  a  black,  sticky  deposit  to  form  on  the  vent  pipe  or 
stack.     See  Foundries. 

CORK — The  bark  of  a  tree.  Pieces  are  soaked  in  water, 
pressed  flat,  dried  and  baled.  It  burns  with  dense  smoke. 
Cork  is  bleached  with  oxalic  acid  or  chloride  of  lime. 

CORK  (Agglomerated  Cork),  known  as  Silax,  li^lsd' '^or 
cork  discs.  Ground  cork  is  placed  in  ordinary  bread-mixef 
and  mixed  with  boiled  solution  of  albumen  and  glycerine. 

CORK  BOARDS  COMPOSITION— Cork  received  in 
bales,  ground  in  high-speed  knife  grinders,  the  dust  removed 
in  separators  and  then  mixed  in  steam-heated  mixers  with 
pitch  (mixers  resemble  dough-mixers),  then  cooked  in  steam 
cookers  and  cooled  in  iron  air-cooled  moulds.  The  edges 
are  trimmed  with  saws  and  sometimes  planed  smooth. 

Ordinary  cork  board  is  made  from  ground  cork 
with  no  other  ingredients.  The  natural  resin  in  the  cork  is 
sufficient  as  binder  when  drawn  out  by  heat. (about  500  deg. 
F.).  The  cork  is  fed  from  a  steam  box  through  blower 
system  to  hydraulic  presses  of  iron  construction  and  passed 
on  endless  conveyor  to  a  bake  oven,  a'  long  affair  of  brick 
walls  heated  by  coal,  producer  gas  or  coke,  similar  in  ap- 
pearance to  a  lehr  in  a  glass  works.  Cork  grinding  is  the 
greatest  hazard  in  cork  works.  The  cork  should  be 
screened  and  have  magnets  attached  to  screens  or  hoppers 
to  attract  foreign  substances  as  the  high-speed  machines 
cause  sparks  and  ignite  the  dust.  After  grinding,  it  is 
bagged  and  sold.  Grinding  should  always  be  done  in  fire- 
proof cut-off  sections  or  in  detached  buildings  properly 
vented.  The  mills  produce  heat  through  friction  and  are 
preferably  water-cooled.  They  should  be  of  iron  construc- 
tion and  have  banking  devices  under  the  rollers  similar  to  a 
malt  mill  in  a  brewery.  A  dusty  process;  requires  vapor- 
proof  electric  light  globes  and  good  ventilation.  See  Bottle 
Stoppers. 


il2  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

CORK  CEMENT— Chiefly  crude  shellac  and  wood  alcohol 
and  cork. 

CORK  DRYERS  or  ovens  are  of  high  temperature,  and 
fire  heat  may  ignite  edges  of  cork  blocks  being  dried. 

CORK  DUST  is  said  to  be  subject  to  spontaneous  combus- 
tion if  moist.  Cork  dust  is  of  explosive  character  when  in 
suspension  mixed  with  proper  amount  of  air. 

CORK  LEATHER  is  powdered  cork  and  india-rubber. 

CORK  PUTTY— Asphalt,  cork  and  heavy  oil. 

CORK  VARNISH,  used  extensively  to  protect  the  inte- 
rior of  ships  from  undue  humidity  due  to  sudden  changes,  is 
made  of  a  mixture  of  ground  cork  mixed  with  litharge  and 
copal  and  other  similar  substances. 

CORK  WORKS— See  Cork  Boards. 

CORN  CURE,  made  by  some  druggists  by  dissolving 
scrap  celluloid  with  acetone. 

CORNER  BUILDINGS,  from  an  underwriting  standpoint, 
are  more  desirable  than  buildings  in  rows,  as  a  fire  can 
always  be  fought  from  at  least  tw^o  sides. 

CORNICE — The  ornamental  projection  at  the  eaves  of  a 
building  or  at  the  top  of  a  pier. 

CORNICES  and  cornice  bulkheads  should  not  be  continu- 
ous. At  least  a  six-inch  open  space  must  be  obtained  between 
properties  adjoining.  Fires  have  been  known  to  travel  across 
fronts  of  rows  in  this  manner  and  not  be  discovered  until  it 
has  broken  out  in  some  remote  place. 

CORNSTALKS    are    now   being   used   in   paper-making. 

CORRODED   PIPES— See   Gas   Explosion. 

CORRUGATED  IRON  on  wood  stud  is  considered  prac- 
tically the  same  as  frame  construction. 

CORRUGATING  PAPER  MACHINE— A  machine  with 
two  sets  of  steam-heated  corrugated  iron  rollers  through 
which  the  paper  is  run  after  being  glued  at  a  glue  tank. 

CORSETS,  especially  of  cheap  grade,  will  not  give  much 
salvage  if  wet  on  account  of  the  steel  frames,  which  rust  very 
quickly.  Better  grades  of  corsets  offer  good  salvage,  pro- 
viding they  are  dried  immediately.  Foreign-made  corsets 
are  generally  embroidered  and  specially  designed,  hence  a 
greater   water   damage   is   looked   for   in   this   class.     Where 


COTTON  113 

bone  stays  are  used  instead  of  steel  stays,  the  salvage  is 
greater. 

CORSET  STAY  (Description  of)— Steel  ribbon  (corset 
steel)  is  coated  by  a  squeeze  process  (similar  to  rubber 
coating  of  electric  wires)  with  a  composition  similar  to  py- 
roxylin (celluloid).  This  is  applied  in  two  coats.  The  pyroxy- 
lin is  evidently  of  a  different  composition  from  that  usually 
manufactured,  as  some  composition  other  than  camphor  is 
mixed  with  the  nitro-cellulose.  This  composition  on  being 
tested  shows  that  same  will  disintegrate  without  flame  upon 
moderate  heating,  showing  a  strong  similarity  to  pyroxylin  in 
this  particular.  This  composition  is  highly  inflammable,  and 
the  ignition  point  is  apparently  very  low. 

COSMOS— A  fibre  from  flax  and  hemp. 

COST  PRICE— See  Sound  Value. 

COTTON,  once  ignited,  is  capable  of  maintaining  smolder- 
ing combustion  for  a  number  of  days.  Baled  cotton  often 
ignites  from  friction  in  center  of  bale  and  will  not  flame  at 
surface  for  several  weeks  after  so  igniting.  Not  believed  to 
be  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion      See  Boll  Weevil. 

COTTON  BATTING  MILLS— Raw  stock  is  mill  waste 
and  sweepings  from  cotton  mills.  Pickers,  cards,  lappers, 
garnetts,  constitute  the  machinery  used.  A  poor  fire-record 
class. 

COTTON— DIPPING  COTTON— A  secret,  non-inflamma- 
ble process  is  now  on  the  market  which,  it  is  claimed,  will 
eliminate  the  hazard  of  fires  in  this  class.  One  of  the  rail- 
roads has  decided  to  have  all  cotton  dipped  which  travels 
over  their  roads,  so  that  the  same  can  be  placed  on  open 
flat  cars.  A  recent  experiment;  a  flat  car  loaded  with  cotton, 
traveled  nearly  100  miles  without  a  fire  resulting,  although 
the  car  containing  the  cotton  was  next  to  the  engine.  Ship- 
ping cotton  on  flat  cars  witt  release  many  freight  cars  for 
other  commodities,  and  by  fireproofing  it,  a  large  sum  of 
money  will  be  saved  annually. 

COTTON  GINS — The  processes  usually  divided  into  three 
sections,  the  warehousing  of  the  cotton  containing  the  seeds 
(seed  cotton),  the  gin-room  proper,  where  the  separation  is 
made,  and  the  lint  pressed  into  bales,  and  the  warehousing 


114  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  the  seed  after  the  lint  has  been  removed.  Most  gin  fires 
are  caused  by  hot  bearings,  cotton  wrapped  around  the  rapid- 
ly revolving  brush  shafts  and  cotton  clogged  at  the  end  of 
brush  drums.     Underwriters  write  this  class  warily. 

CPTTON  MILLS— The  cotton  is  taken  from  the  store- 
house to  the  opening  room,  where  the  ties  are  removed  and 
the  bales  pulled  apart,  sometimes  by  hand,  at  other  times  by 
machinery.  The  cotton  is  then  blown  in  the  picker  room, 
usually  by  an  approved  system  sirriilar  to  the  blowers  in  a 
wood-working  plant.  The  machines  in  the  picker  room  are 
known  as  breakers,  intermediate  and  finisher  tappers.  They 
consist  of  a  cylindrical  metal  box,  inside  of  which  is  a  steel 
shaft,  to  which  are  attached  arms  which  beat  the  cbtton  to 
a  loose,  fluffy  state,  all  foreign  material  going  to  the  bottom 
of  the  enclosure.  The  cotton  is  delivered  through  a  slit  in 
one  side  of  the  box  in  the  form  of  a  sheet,  and  is  then  rolled 
around  a  steel  rod  in  a  roll  known  as  a  lap.  After  leaving 
the  picker  room,  the  cotton  goes  to  the  cards.  This  process 
consists  of  passing  the  cotton  between  rapidly  revolving  cyl- 
inders covered  with  wire  teeth  to  straighten  out  the  cotton 
fibres  and  lay  them  parallel  to  one  another.  The  remaining 
process  of  drawing,  slubbing,  speeding,  spinning  and  weaving 
are  merely  preparatory  processes  and  present  little,  if  any, 
fire  hazard.    The  main  hazard  in  a  cotton  mill  is  the  picking. 

COTTON-PICKER  FIRES  are  commonly  attributed  to 
"foreign"  substances  in  the  stock.  This  foreign  substance  is 
supposed  to  be  stones,  pieces  of  metal  and  matches.  Sta- 
tistics show  that  there  are  more  picker  fires  in  the  winter 
time  than  in  summer,  and  more  in  "dog  days'*  than  in  May, 
June  or  October.  Some  believe  the  humidity  of  the  picker 
room  itself  has  something  to  do  with  it.  When  the  relative 
humidity  of  the  picker  room  is  below  25  degrees  the  cotton 
may  become  so  dry  that  it  is  readily  ignited  by  a  small 
spark,  and  when  it  is  above  80  degrees,  cotton  becomes  so 
limp  that  it  winds  up  and  packs  on  moving  parts  of  pickers, 
thereby  causing  fires.  It  is  claimed  that  a  part  of  these  fires 
could  be  prevented  by  avoiding  both  extremes  of  humidity  in 
the  picker  room.  See  Humidity  a  Factor  in  Cotton  Picker 
Fires,  Vol.  9,  N.  F.  P.  A.,  April,  1916.) 


OK    •  '  COtTdN  PIERS  lii' 

Cotton  piers— sprinklers  are  absolutely  necessary  to 
prevent  "flash  fires"  spreading  over  the  surfaces  of  baled  cot- 
ton. In  May,  1916,  a  fire  started  in  about  1,200  bales  of  cot- 
ton stored  on  one  of  the  Bush  Terminal  piers,  Brooklyn. 
Sixty-five  heads  operated  and  held  the  fire  in  check  until  the 
arrival  of  the  fire  department.  A  few  hours  later  fire  was  dis- 
covered in  a  cotton  warehouse  about  half  a  mile  away.  The 
fire  department  would  have  been  severely  taxed  with  two 
cotton  fires  at  one  time  had  the  pier  and  warehouse  not  been 
sprinklered.  ■rtalotiaoiioi^^r- 

A  great  many  fires  afe  c^'iis^d  "by  matches  being  dropped 
oil  piers  and  docks  by  careless  workmen,  and  fires  are  started 
by  the  friction  of  moving  the  bales.  Such  a  fire  is  liable  to 
smoulder  for  several  days  before  it  is  discovered,  by  which 
time  it  has  had  the  opportunity  to  spread,  so  that  its  extin- 
guishment is  a  difficult  task.  There  is  never  any  surety  that 
a  cotton  fire  is  out  until  every  piece  of  each  bale  has  been 
han<i-picked  and  thoroughly  water-soaked.  A  great  niany 
cotton  fires  have  been  traced  to  compress  and  gin  owners 
who  entered  a  low-grade  cotton  on  their  books,  then  burned 
it  to  collect  the  insurance.     See  Piers. 

COTTONSEED  OIL  MILLS— Fires  are  sometimes 
caused  by  spontaneous  combustion  in  old  filter  cloths.  The 
special  hazards  of  this  class  are  spent  or  used  fuller's  earth, 
filter-press  cloths,  storage  of  oleo-stearine  and  refrigeration. 

COUNTERFORT— Vertical    projections    of    masonry    or' 
brickwork   built   at   intervals   along   the   back   of   a   wall   to 
strengthen  it.  j^^'!%.^l. 

COUNTERMAN— The  person  who  attends  the  counter  of 
an  insurance  office  and  passes  on  the  merits  of  the  business 
which  is  offered  to  the  company,  by  the  "placers"  from  the 
various  brokerage  offices,  binding  and  committing  his  com- 
pany to  liability  on  the  risks  offered.  It  is  necessary  that 
he  be  a  good  underwriter,  as  he  must  perform  that  duty  with 
snap  judgment,  basing  his  calculations  of  line  on  his  knowl- 
edge of  conditions  in  his  particular  fieldj  and  the  known  haz- 
ards and  construction  of  the  risk  to  be  covered.  This  posi- 
tion requires  not  only  one  possessing  expert  insurance  knowl- 
edge, but  a  pleasing  personality,  so  that  placers  and  others 


116  iNsi^ECTiOK  And  underwriting 

offering  business  may  be  attracted  to  the  office.  See  Ex- 
aminers; see  Underwriting. 

COUNTER-SHAFTING— The  shafting  operating  or  actu- 
ally driving  the  machinery,  and  itself  being  driven  by  the 
main  or  jack  shaft. 

COUNTERWEIGHT  or  counter  balance.  Any  weight 
used  to  balance  another. 

COUNTRY  STORES— Usually  contain  a  miscellaneous 
stock,  chiefly  general  merchandise.  The  heating  apparatus  is 
usually  defective.  Risks  often  isolated  in  frame  rows  with 
poor  protection.     See  Business  Blocks. 

COUPLINGS — A  term  used  to  express  the  arrangement 
for  connecting  two  shafts  so  that  they  will  revolve  to- 
gether. 

COURSE  OF  CONSTRUCTION  risks  are  usually  good 
fire  risks,  especially  if  of  brick  or  fireproof  construction. 
Theatres,  churches  and  halls  in  course  of  construction  are 
not  considered  as  good  as  ordinary  buildings,  owing  to  the 
great  amount  of  lumber  scaffolding  necessary  to  complete  the 
high  interior  of  building.  Many  fires  have  been  caused  in 
buildings  in  course  of  construction  by  the  use  of  salaman- 
ders, stoves  and  careless  mechanics  using  gasoline  torches. 
See  Builders'  Risks;  see  Platforms. 

COUTCHINE— See  Caoutchoucine. 

CRADLE — Applied  to  various  kinds  of  timber  supports 
which  partly  enclose  the  mass  sustained. 

CRANE — A  hoisting  machine  consisting  of  a  revolving 
vertical  post  or  stalk. 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR— Made  from  argols,  the  scrapings 
from  the  wine  casks.  Process  is  as  follows:  Ground  in  mill, 
cooked  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  hydrated  lime  in  wooden, 
steam-heated  tanks,  precipitated,  screened  to  remove  liquor, 
mixed  with  bone  black  to  bleach,  filtered,  dissolved,  granu- 
lated, crystalized,  dried,  washed  in  hydrochloric  acid  to  re- 
move lead  and  lime,  crushed,  ground,  sifted,  barrelled.  Hazard 
of  dryers,  storage  of  bone  black  and  lime,  grinding  in  stone 
and  iron  mills.  Tartaric  acid,  in  the  juice  of  the  grape,  is 
combined  with  potash  forming  a  salt  called  cream  of  tartar. 

CREAMERIES  AND  DAIRIES— Although  the  up-to-date 


CREOSOTING  RAILROAD  TIES  lit 

risks  of  this  class  are  all  steam  process,  the  fire  record  is 
poor.     See  Dairy  Farms. 

CREMONITES — Detonating  preparations,  partly  com- 
posed of  picrates. 

CREOSOTE— Produced  by  the  distillation  of  wood  tar. 
Used  to  impregnate  wood.  Nearly  as  inflammable  as  kero- 
sene. 

CREOSOTE  OIL— See  Heavy  Oil. 

CREOSOTING  RAILROAD  TIES— The  Reuping  proc- 
ess, with  blow-back  system.  Under  this  system,  the  railroad 
ties  are  placed  in  impregnating  cylinders  and  subjected  for 
about  an  hour  to  an  air  pressure  of  75  lbs.  filling  the  cells  of 
wood  witlw  compressed  air.  Without  reducing  the  pressure 
in  impregnating  cylinders,  creosote  at  a  temperature  of  180 
deg.  F.  is  forced  into  impregnating  cylinders.  When  cylin- 
ders are  full  of  cresote,  the  air  pressure  is  raised  to  200  lbs. 
Under  this  pressure  the  creosote  penetrates  into  the  cells  of 
the  wood,  soaking  the  cell  walls  and  compressing  still  more 
the  air  formerly  put  in  at  75  lbs.  The  pressure  of  200  lbs.  is 
maintained  from  2^  hours  to  4  hours,  depending  upon  the 
nature  of  the  wood.  When  wood  is  sufficiently  impregnated, 
the  air  pressure  is  released  and  the  expansive  energy  of  the 
air  in  the  wood  forces  as  much  of  the  creosote  out  of. the 
wood  as  does  not  adhere  to  the  cells  of  the  wood.  The  sur- 
plus creosote  is  then  blown  back  to  supply  tanks  with  a  pres- 
sure of  8  to  10  lbs.  The  creosote  is  manufactured  from  bitu- 
minous coal,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.178,  and  a  flash 
point  of  about  500  deg.  F. 

CREOSOTING  WORKS— The  finished  lumber  should  be 
piled  a  considerable  distance  from  the  plant  as  it  burns  very 
rapidly.  Storage  tanks  containing  the  creosote  fluid,  ought 
not  be  nearer  than  50  feet  to  the  plant,  with  underground 
piping  and  gravity  return.  No  open  lights  or  fires  allowed 
in  treating  room,  which  should  be  a  detached  structure.  The 
boiler  should  also  be  detached. 

CRIB  CONSTRUCTION— Made  of  superimposed  planks 
laid  with  broken  joints  and  spiked  together.    See  Piers. 

CROCKERY  (porcelain) — Kiln  burning  hazard,  grinding, 
moulding,  cutting,  dry  rooms,  hand  decorating.     Use  turpen- 


1X9  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

tine  and  varnish  from  individual  bottles  for  decorating.  Ma- 
chine shop  repairs,  carpenter  shop,  storage  of  packing  ma- 
terial. Large  area  risks  predominate.  See  China  Decor- 
ating. 

CRONSTADES— The  pasty  shells  made  of  flour,  water  and 
sometimes  eggs,  fried  in  grease.  Used  in  hotels  and  restau- 
rants in  serving  cut-up  meats,  fruits  or  sauces.  Where  ttwse 
are  made,  the  floors  are  apt  to  be  grease  soaked. O/^n:-? 51 D 

CROSS-BRIDGING— Each  pair  of  floor  beams  should  be 
cross-bridged  at  intervals  of  seven  feet  in  their  length. 

CROSS  SECTION  in  an  elevation  drawing  is  an  imaginary 
line  cut  through  the  center, 

CROWN — A  term  applied  to  the  uppermost  or  highest 
part  of  an  arch,  that  in  which  a  keystone  is  fixed. 

CRUCIBLE  WORKS— Crucibles  are  used  for  refining 
metals.  The  metal  is  placed  inside  of  crucible  and  then  same 
is  placed  in  furnace.  Crucibles  are  made  of  French  clay  and 
plumbago  (which  is  black  lead  or  graphite).  It  is  moulded 
and  then  baked  in  brick  (wood  fuel)   retorts. 

CRUDE  OIL— See  Petroleum.  As  it  comes  from  the  well 
is  a  heavy,  oily  liquid,  very  inflammable,  coming  from  Eastern 
wells.  From  Western  wells,  flash  point  is  above  100  deg.  F. 
to  as  high  as  210  deg.  F. 

CRUDE  PETROLEUM  is  crude  oil. 

CRYSTALLIZATION— When  crystals  are  formed  from 
solutions,  we  term  it  the  process  of  crystallization.  When  the 
substance  used  dissolves  as  freely  in  cold  as  in  hot  water,  as 
is  the  case  with  common  salt,  crystalization  is  produced  only 
by  evaporation;  as  the  water  goes  off  into  the  air,  the  crys- 
tals form. 

CRYSTALLIZING  is  really  evaporating.  When  chem- 
icals are  in  a  state  of  solution  in  water  or  other  liquid  they 
can  be  crystallized  by  evaporating  the  liquid.  This  work  is 
done  in  low  pans,  steam  heated.  Hazard  is  considered  very 
light. 

CUPOLA — As  used  in  foundries.  The  upright  cylindrical 
stack  of  iron,  lined  with  fire  brick  into  which  is  dumped  the 
scrap    iron   and    fuel    for   melting.      The   molten   mass   flows 


through    a    trough    to    buckets,    wMdl^  "drfe'^'Caffied'tb  *'the 

foundry.  '  - -:   ''  '  ■    ••''•";-■'  ■         ■  •""    ■■  "' -  ■ 

CUPOLAS  and  towers  on  public  buildings  are  frequently 
the  depository  for  old  records,  furniture  and  fixtures.  The 
City  Hall  (New  York  City)  tower  has  been  destroyed  three 
times.  The  last  fire  in  May,  1917,  causing  $20,000  loss,  was 
caused  by  a  careless  workman  leaving  a  charcoal  furnace  un- 
attended while  he  absented  himself. 

CURB — The  term  "Curb"  when  used  in  connection  with 
defining  the  height  of  a  building  is  the  established  mean  curb 
level  at  the  front  of  the  building.  If  the  building  fronts  on 
more  than  one  street,  the  datum  for  measurement  shall  be 
taken  at  the  established  mean  curb  level  on  the  street  of 
greatest  width.  When  this  width  is  common  to  more  than 
one  street,  the  datum  for  measurement  shall  be  taken  at  that 
having  the  highest  curb.  The  term  "Curb"  when  used  in 
fixing  the  depth  of  an  excavation  is  the  established  curb  level 
nearest  to  the  point  of  the  excavation  in  question.  Where 
no  curb  elevation  has  been  established,  or  the  building  line 
does  not  adjoin  the  street,  the  average  finished  ground  level 
adjoining  the  building  shall  be  considered  the  curb  level. — 
(N.  F.  P.  A.) 

CURTAIN  BOARDS— Metal  or  other  non-combustible 
shields  placed  around  openings  in  the  floor  so  as  to  bank  the 
heat  and  allow  the  sprinkler  heads  to  operate.  The  heat 
waves  travel  similar  to  water  waves,  rebounding  when  strik- 
ing an  obstruction. 

CURTAIN  WALL  is  the  wall  placed  on  the  outside  of 
steel  skeleton  frames  merely  to  keep  out  the  elements.  No 
structural  parts  depend  upon  these  walls. 

CUSTOM  OR  MERCHANT  TAILORS— Make  clothing 
to  order  for  individuals  from  measure.    Tailor  shop  hazard. 

CUT  GLASS  is  first  blown  into  the  general  shape  intended 
from  the  brilliant  crystal  and  then  ground  into  a  cluster  of 
glisteningfacets.  Grindstones,  continually  rooistened  by  streams 
of  wet  sand,  cut  the  rough  pattern,  and  emery  wheels  and  putty 
powder  finish  the  brilliant  angles.  After  the  glass  is  cut  it  is 
given  an  acid  bath  after  the  inner  surface  has  been  coated 


120  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

with  paraffine  and  beeswax.  The  wax  prevents  the  acid  from 
eating  into  or  staining  the  glass.  Alundum  (a  composition 
of  carborundum)  and  craigleth  (natural  hard  stones)  are 
used  for  cutting.     They  crack  under  action  of  fire  and  water. 

CUTLERY  STOCKS— Apt  to  rust  from  moisture  or  damp- 
ness. Should  be  salvaged  immediately  after  a  fire.  See  Tools 
and  Instruments. 

CUT-OFF — A  term  used  by  insurance  men  to  signify  that 
buildings  are  separated  by  brick  division  walls  with  standard 
or  non-standard  doors  at  openings.     See  Communications. 

CUTTING  AND  WORK  TABLES  should  have  gal- 
vanized fire  stops  or  partitions  firmly  set  and  fastened  under 
the  same.  These  are  to  prevent  flash  fires  from  sweeping 
swiftly  under  the  entire  length  of  the  table  in  the  cuttings. 

CUTTING  BOARDS— See  Shoe  Factories. 

CYANATES  are  cyanic  acid  compounds. 

CYANIDE  OF  POTASSIUM— Deadly  poisonous.  Used 
by  electroplaters  in  forming  solutions  of  gold,  silver,  etc., 
and  by  photographers  for  ''fixing.'*  Liable  to  cause  spon- 
taneous combustion. 

CYANIDES — Compounds  of  cyanogen  with  elements  or 
metals. 

CYANOGEN  is  one  of  the  most  volatile  of  the  distillates 
from  crude  petroleum.  Flash  point  zero  F.  Classed  as  very 
inflammable.  Cyanogen  compounds  (carbon  and  nitrogen 
combine  to  form  cyanogen),  a  combustible  gas  which  forms 
with  chlorine.     Sometimes  used  for  fumigating  purposes. 

CYCLONE  is  a  centrifugal  collector  made  of  iron,  shaped 
like  the  inverted  frustrum  of  a  cone  depending  upon  gravity 
and  centrifugal  force  to  separate  the  dust  from  the  air  con- 
taining it.  Cyclones  are  usually  on  the  roof  of  the  shavings 
vault  of  a  woodworker.     See  Shaving  Vault.     See  Blower. 

CYLINDER  PRINTING  PRESSES  have  a  large  flat  bed 
for  the  form  containing  the  type,  which  passes  back  and 
forth  under  a  revolving  cylinder;  the  latter  receives  the 
paper  from  the  feeding  board  and  brings  it  into  contact  with 
the  form  beneath.     See  Printers. 


-SOA'- 


DAILY  REPORT— The  copy  of  the  policy,  together  with 
all  other  necessary  information  concerning  a  risk,  sent  by  an 
agent  to  the  Home  office  of  a  comi)any  for  the  guidance  of 
the  examiner. 

DAIRY  FARMS— Bad  fire  record.  Health  board  restric- 
tions are  said  to  have  taken  considerable  of  the  profits  of  the  • 
business.  In  some  states,  if  an  epidemic  occurs,  the  entire 
herd  is  confiscated.  The  State  reimburses  the  owner  to  only 
fifty  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  animals  destroyed.  Hazards 
of  large  area  barns,  large  quantity  of  hay  and  straw  on 
storage  and  boiler.  See  Creameries  and  Dairies;  also  Milk 
Depots. 

DAMAR — A  resin  similar  in  appearance  to  gum  arabic. 

DAMMARA — A  gum  or  resin  similar  to  copal. 

DANCE  HALLS— See  Halls. 

DANGEROUS  GOODS— See  Storage  Lines. 

DANGEROUS  PROCESSES— Most  manufacturing  risks 
would  be  desirable  insurance  if  the  dangerous  processes  in 
them  were  isolated  or  cut  off  from  the  balance  of  the  plant 
by  heavy  brick  walls  and  "labelled"  automatic  fire  doors  at 
communicating  openings.  Automatic  sprinklers  in  these 
rooms  would  also  greatly  aid  in  the  protection  of  the  plant. 

DAVY  SAFETY  LANTERN  merely  has  a  wire  mesh 
above  the  light,  which  prevents  fumes  from  coming  in  contact 
with  flame. 

DEAD  ENDS — Any  pipe  scheme  containing  a  dead  end 
should  be  corrected  where  possible  by  completing  the 
parallelogram.     See  Water  Mains. 

DEAD  OIL — A  heavy  oil  distilled  from  coal  tar  after,  fli'e 
distillation  of  the  light  oils.     Not  very  inflammable. 

DEAD  RISER — In  sprinkler  equipments.  Is  the  riser 
which   drops   down   from   the   tank   supply   to   the   basement 

121 


122  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

without  any  openings  and  connects  in  the  basement  to  the 
live  riser  which  supplies  the  heads.  See  Sprinkler  Equip- 
ment. 

DEAD  STORAGE— Automobiles  are  said  to  be  on  dead 
storage  when  they  are  not  infuse,  and  laid  up  for  the  season. 
Gasoline  should  be  drained  from  the  tanks,  but  this  is  seldom 
done. 

DEAFENED  FLOORS  prevent  sound  from  traveling  from 
floor  to  floor.  One  of  the  best  methods  to  deafen  floors  is 
to  have  a  layer  of  cinders  and  concrete  underneath  the  top 
flooring  carried  by  thin  deafening-boards  resting  on  cleats 
fastened  to  the  side  of  beams  or  joists  as  shoulders. 

DECALCOMANIE  crockery  decorating. — Impression 
transferred  from  copper  plate  to  paper  by  passing  it  through 
a  roller,  then  transferred  to  crockery  by  hand.  Mineral  oils 
and  turpentine  are  used  in  transferring  work.  Firing  kilns 
and  packing  material  constitute  the  hazards  in  this  class.  See 
China  Decorating. 

DECARBONIZE— See  Tempering. 

DECLINE — A  notice.  Verbal  or  written,  from  the  company 
to  the  insured  or  his  agent,  stating  the  company's  refusal  to 
assume  liability. 

DECK-FLOOR— The  main  floor  of  a  pier.  A  narrow 
mezzanine  floor  or  gallery  between  floors. 

DECK-NOZZLE— The  main  nozzle  for  fire  hose  on  a  boat. 

DECORATORS  AND  PAINTERS— Busiest  season  April 
to  October.  Oily  waste  and  oily  overalls  left  by  workmen 
when  decorating  the  interior  of  buildings  have  caused  many 
fires.     See  Painters. 

DEGREE  OF  INFLAMMABILITY  is  determined  by  the 
attraction  of  the  substance  for  oxygen. 

DELIQUESCE — A  salt  which  gathers  moisture  from  the 
air  is  said  to  be  deliquescent. 

DEMOLITION  OF  FIREPROOF  BUILDING— Gillen- 
der  building,  20  Wall  Street,  New  York  City,  part  sixteen 
and  part  nineteen  stories  high,  skeleton  steel  construction, 
terra-cotta  floor  arches,  all  ironwork  protected  by  l]^-inch 
terra  cotta.  It  was  observed  that  the  steel  work  during  re- 
moval was  practically  in  as  good  a  condition  as  at  the  time 


^  ,  j.    DEPARTMENT  STORES  123 

the  building  was  originally  built  in  1896.  The  conclusions 
obtained  from  this  rather  unusual  case  were:  1st — The  pres- 
ence of  corrosion  in  several  small  places  where  the  steel  work 
was  exposed  to  the  weather  (this  emphasizes  the  importance 
of  proper  protection  against  moisture).  2nd — A  covering  of 
cement  mortar  protects  steel  from  corrosive  influences  bet- 
ter than  any  form  of  paint  at  present  in  use.  3rd — It  is  im- 
portant to  paint  the  steel  both  at  the  mill  and  after  being 
erected  at  the  building  before  the  cement  coating  is  applied. 

DENATURED  ALCOHOL  consists  of  grain  alcohol  to 
which  some  substance  i^  added,  rendering  it  unfit  as.  a  bev- 
erage, usually  contains  wood  alcohol,  pyridiii^;  or  , benzine. 
Flash  40  deg.  F.    Classed  as  inflammable.     -      r  ,*  -,  f-y 

DENATURED  OLIVE  OIL— Olive  oil  with  about  a  per 
cent,  rosin  oil,  mineral  oil,  distilled  wood  turpentine,  pyridin, 
creosote,  aniline  oil  or  oleic  acid.  -v  -^,i 

DENITRATION— Removal  of  the  NO2  radicle  from  niti*o- 
cellulose,  rendering  it  non-explosive. 

DENSE  TILE— Hard  terra-cotta  tile  of  little  porosity. 

DENSITY— See  Specific  Gravity. 

DENTAL  GAS — Nitrous  oxide  gas,  colorless,  incombusti- 
ble, not  hazardous. 

DEPARTMENT  STORES— Much  of  the  stock  displayed 
is  of  a  highly  inflammable  nature,  and  as  different  in  charac- 
ter as  celluloid  combs,  ammunition  or  calcium  carbide  are 
from  crockery,  china  and  glassware.  The  stock  is  very  sus- 
ceptible to  water  damage  and  breakage,  and  may  be  ruined 
by  smoke.  The  large  well-holes,  open  stair  and  elevator 
shafts  have  been  responsible  for  the  spread  of  fire  in  most 
of  these  risks.  If  building  is  fireproof  and  sprinklered,  with 
curtain  boards  on  ceilings  at  openings,  this  danger  is  some- 
what reduced. 

DEPRECIATION  OF  BUILDINGS— There  is  really  no 
set  rule,  in  some  cases  a  sliding  scale  may  be  applied,  whereas 
sometimes  an  average  figure  is  the  better  way.  If  the 
structure  is  badly  worn,  the  depreciation  would  be  corre- 
spondingly greater  than  a  building  kept  in  good  repair.  See 
Values  of  Buildings. 

DEPRECIATION  OF  MACHINERY— For  a  great  many 


124  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

kinds  of  machines,  experts  have  arranged  a  percentage  table 
whereby  a  regular  deduction  each  year  is  applied.  In  some 
machines  there  is  practically  no  important  depreciation  for 
several  years  while  others  must  be  entirely  rebuilt  after  very 
little  wear. 

DETACHED — A  structure  which  does  not  adjoin  another 
structure.  Not  necessarily  isolated.  Number  of  feet  de- 
tached should  always  be  mentioned  on  inspection  report. 

DETERGENE— A  benzine  substitute,  classed  as  non- 
volatile. 

DETONATING  FUSES  usually  contain  several  ounces  of 
a  high  explosive  such  as  picric  acid  or  nitrocellulose. 

DETONATORS— See  Fuses. 

DEVILING — The  picking  apart  of  fibres  or  similar  ma- 
terials by  machinery. 

DEXTRINE— Made  from  starches.  The  best  is  made  from 
potato  starch  from  Japan,  tapioca  and  sago  from  Java  and 
Sumatra,  and  cornstarch  or  similar  starches.  Received  at 
mills  in  bags,  mixed  in  agitator  where  a  one  per  cent,  solu- 
tion of  various  acids  such  as  muriatic,  acetic,  nitric;  salts, 
hypochloride  of  soda,  magnesium  chloride  and  similar  ma- 
terials are  added  by  a  sprayer  as  the  machine  revolves,  then 
roasted  in  brick-enclosed  coal  fuel  roasters,  ground  in  cen- 
trifugal crusher  or  grinder  and  bolted.  Roasters  are  similar 
to  brick-enclosed  coffee  roasters,  with  a  revolving  drum  en- 
closed in  brick.  Hazards  of  roasters,  grinders  and  dust.  The 
dextrine  in  roasters  will  take  fire  if  the  drum  ceases  to  re- 
volve. The  dust  will  settle  on  bearings  and  shaftings  of  ma- 
chinery. Used  as  a  stiffening  substance  and  as  food.  Some- 
times called  British  gum. 

DIAMOND  METAL  POLISH— Flash  point  204  deg.  F. 
Classed  non-volatile. 

DIAMYL,  obtained  during  the  distillation  of  coal,  very  in- 
flammable. 

DIAPHRAGM — A  single  or  double-movable  plate  or  par- 
tition placed  across  or  inside  of  a  tube,  pipe  or  other  hollow 
body  to  record  fluctuations  in  pressure  or  heat,  to  hold  back 
liquids  and  gases  or  to  allow  variations  in  pressure  without 
impairing  the  efficiency  of  the  device. 


AlTtStWSi   ^^^  TANKS  125 

DIE — A  hard  block  of  metal  or  that  part  of  a  stamping 
machine  which  cuts  out  or  makes  an  impression  on  an  ob- 
ject, such  as  a  coin.  Those  with  a  fine  cutting  edge  are 
classed  as  "edged  tools/'  owing  to  their  susceptibility  to  fire 
damage. 

DINITRO-CHLOR-BENZOL  in  crystal  state  will  feed 
fire,  not  very  inflammable  and  only  slightly  explosive. 

DI-NITRATES  are  classed  as  explosives. 

DI-NITRATING  is  a  hazardous  process. 

DIP  BLACK— See  Shoe  Factories. 

DIP  TANKS  with  automatic  covers.  (Inspection  Dept., 
Factory  Fire  Ins.  Co.) — Should  be  in  a  1-story  high  building. 
Floor  to  be  incombustible  and  should  pitch  to  one  side  and 
have  drain  pipe  leading  to  underground  well  (drain  pipe  6 
inches  and  have  coarse  strainer  ^-inch  mesh  at  first  floor). 
Dip  tank  should  be  steel  or  iron  plate  riveted  together. 
Should  have  wrought-iron  overflow  pipe  leading  outside  of 
building  to  a  well,  these  pipes  to  be  at  least  3  inches  where 
tanks  hold  less  than  100  gals.,  and  4  to  6  inches  for  large 
tanks,  overflow  to  have  coarse  strainer  at  tank;  the  well,  to 
which  overflow  pipe  leads,  should  be  ventilated,  and  should 
be  at  least  four  times  the  capacity  of  tank.  Well  should  be 
at  least  15  feet  from  building,  located  down-hill  and  be  so 
arranged  that  any  overflow  therefrom  cannot  endanger  build- 
ings. Tanks  should  have  automatic  covers;  a  folding  hinge 
cover  is  generally  most  convenient.  Cover  to  be  metal  or 
wood  covered  with  lock-jointed  tin,  and  overlap  the  sides  of 
tank,  and  be  secured  with  strong  metal  hinges,  the  hinges 
being  offset  and  projected  against  gumming.  A  fusible  link 
and  chain  and  counter-balanced  weight  makes  a  satisfactory 
arrangement.  In  addition  to  above,  it  is  often  advisable  to 
locate  a  metal  hood  directly  over  tank,  hood  to  have  a  metal 
flue  pipe,  which  discharges  into  a  properly  constructed  brick 
chimney.  The  hood  should  extend  well  over  sides  of  tank 
and  should  be  as  low  down  as  feasible,  the  hood  an'swering 
the  double  purpose  of  preventing,  at  least  to  some  extent, 
water  being  thrown  into  the  tank  by  sprinklers  or  hose,  and, 
also,  taking  off  flames  from  the  burning  liquid  in  case  the 
automatic  cover  should  fail.     (H.  A.  Fiske.)     See  Lacquer. 


»; 


f2d  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

DIPPING  ARTICLES  in  tanks  containing  inflammable 
liquids,  such  as  japan,  enamel,  varnish,  etc.,  no  matter  how 
well  guarded,  constitutes  a  severe  hazard.  No  open  lights  are 
permitted  in  same  room. 

DIPPING  COTTON— See  Cotton. 

DIRECT  CURRENT— See  Alternating  Current. 

DIRECT  FEED  TO  BOILERS  from  blower  systems  for 
fuel  shavings.  The  feed  pipe  connects  directly  with  the 
blower  system;  the  feed  end  placed  at  the  boiler  feed  door 
and.  the  shavings  blown  in.  Automatic  dampers  in  the  feed 
duct  prevent  back-fires  from  racing  up  the  duct  in  case  of 
clogging  of  the  shavings  or  shutting  down  of  the  blower. 
See  Shavings  Vaults.  <ridfr[03: 

DIRECT  LOSS— The  loss  of  capital  "due  to  damage  or 
destruction  of  the  buildings,  machinery,  stock  or  other  real 
or  personal  property;  and  this  loss  to  the  owners  is  usually 
minimized  by  means  of  fire  insurance. 

DISINFECTANTS— Ingredients  used  are  creosote,  glyce- 
rine, sugar,  camphor  oil,  resin,  charcoal,  Texaco  spirits,  sul- 
phur, euchrelytum,  Russian  turpentine,  caustic  soda,  bicar- 
bonate soda,  chloral,  mineral  oils,  nucoline  (cocoanut  oil),  car- 
bolic acid,  coal  tar,  acetic  acid,  kerosene  and  essential  oils. 

DISPLAY  FIGURES  AND  FIXTURES,  as  used  to  dis- 
play clothing,  dry  goods,  furs,  etc.  A  complete  figure  con- 
sists of  *a  wax  head,  false  hair,  glass  or  celluloid  eyes,  bust  of 
papier-mache  (enamelled),  body  of  papier-mache  (cloth  cov- 
ered), arms  of  wood,  wax  hands  with  celluloid  finger  nails, 
wooden  or  papier-mache  legs,  iron  feet  and  a  wire  frame  for 
skirt.  Hazards  are  metal  working  with  foundry,  painting 
and  japanning,  wax  heating  by  direct  fire,  making  depressions 
in  wax,  such  as  dimples  with  heated  tools,  woodworking, 
painting  complexions  with  air  or  hand  brush,  inserting  hair 
by  first  warming  the  scalp  near  a  stove.  Papier-mache  form 
making,  drying,  enamelling,  painting  and  lacquering.  Class 
of  help  is  inferior.  Early  fall  and  early  spring  are  the 
busiest  seasons.    This  class  is,  as  a  rule,  a  poor  one. 

DISTILLATION— See  Distilleries. 

DISTILLERIES— Distilling  is  separating  the  lighter  parts 
from  the  heavier  parts  of  a  substance  by  vaporizing  in  a  still 


DISTRIBUTION  CLAUSE  127 

and  feCondensing  same  into  liquid  form  by  sudden  cooling. 
High  proof  liquors,  such  as  whiskey  or  brandy,  are  made  in 
distilleries.  Alcohol,  cologne  spirits,  fusel-oil  and  other  al- 
cohol by-products,  are  produced  in  the  process.  Except 
brandy,  most  are  made  from  grain.  Distilleries  embrace 
many  of  the  brewery  hazards.  The  grain  is  reduced  to  a 
meal,  mixed  with  water,  cooked  in  steam  kettles  at  high  tem- 
perature, run  to  fermenting  vats  where  yeast  is  added.  The 
liquid  drawn  oft  and  mashed,  is  then  pumped  to  a  so-called 
beer-still  (Usually  copper),  at  the  top  of  which  is  an  opening 
to  which  is  attached  a  long  copper  tube,  one  end  of  which  is 
inserted  into  a  vat  and  connected  to  a  worm  (a  spiral  copper 
condensing  coil),  immersed  in  water.  The  mash  is  boiled 
until  the  liquid  is  vaporized  and  recondensed  in  the  worm. 
The  product  of  this  distillation  is  known  as  high  wines.  Di- 
rect heat,  sometimes  used  for  stills,  is  more  hazardous  than 
steam.  Coal,  coke,  oil  or  gas  are  used.  Setting  of  furnaces 
is  important  hazard.  The  liquid  produced  by  the  first  distil- 
lation is  redistilled  and  the  vapor  therefrom  passes  to  a 
column,  which  is  a  cylindrical  separator  containing  several 
cells  which  are  designed  to  condense  certain  of  the  spirit 
vapors.  Some  of  the  cells  are  connected  to  "leaches"  or  rec- 
tifiers, which  are  receptacles  containing  powdered  charcoal 
through  which  the  liquid  is  forced  for  cleaning  or  filtering. 
There  are  various  methods  of  distilling,  somfe  being  a  con- 
tinuous operation.  Hazards  are  open  lights  in  the  presence 
of  alcohol  vapors,  charcoal  storage,  putting  stoves  inside  of 
charring  vats  for  drying,  painting,  branding  and  coopering 
barrels  or  kegs;  the  method  of  still  heating  and  alcohol' 
handling.     See  Liquors. 

DISTRIBUTION  CLAUSE— "It  is  understood  and  agreed 
that  the  amount  insured  by  this  policy  shall  attach  in  each  of 
the  above  named  premises  in  that  proportion  of  the  amount 
hereby  insured  that  the  value  of  the  property  covered  by  this 
policy  contained  in  each  of  the  said  premises  shall  bear  to 
:he  value  of  such  property  contained  in  'all  of  the  above 
amcd  premises."  When  this  clause  is  attached  to  the  policy 
it  distributes  the  insurance  over  the  property  (at  the  time  of 
the    fire)    in    the    same    proportions    as    the   values    are    dis- 


i26  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

tributed  and  the  policy  immediately  becomes  specific  insur- 
ance for  the  amounts  so  ascertained.  Example:  Insurance 
carried,  $10,000.  Merchandise  in  building,  "A,"  $5,000;  in 
building  "B,"  $5,000;  in  building  "C,"  $10,000.  Total  value, 
$20,000.  Building  "A"  gets  5,000/20,000  of  $10,000,  or  $2,500; 
building  "B,"  5,000/20,000,  or  $2,500;  building  "C,"  10,- 
000/20,000,  or  $5,000. 

DISULPHIDE  OF  CARBON  (carbon  bisulphide)  is  a 
very  inflammable  liquid.  When  its  vapors  ipix  with  the  air, 
hydrogen  or  carbonic  acid,  highly  explosive  gases  are  pro- 
duced. A  mixture  of  air  and  the  vapors  from  bisulphide  of 
carbon  will  explode  at  about  300  deg.  F.  The  flash  point  is 
very  "low  and  under  certain  conditions  the  liquid  may  be  ex- 
ploded by  shock.  It  is  made  by  passing  sulphur  vapor  over 
red-hot  charcoal  and  when  burned  it  produces  quantities  of 
suffocating  gases.  It  is  a  colorless,  heavy  liquid,  with  an 
odor  resembling  rotten  eggs.  It  is  a  serious  fire  hazard  and 
should  never  be  allowed  inside  of  main  buildings.  It  is  some- 
times used  to  fumigate  stocks  of  tobacco.  It  is  also  used  as 
a  solvent  for  gums  and  resins,  extracting  grease  from  wool; 
also  oil  from  various  seeds.  It  may  also  be  used  as  a  dis- 
infectant and  germicide  insect  killer.     (F.  J.  McFarlane.) 

DIVI-DIVI — A  vegetable  product  from  Venezuela  used  in 
tanning  and  dyeing. 

DOCKS— See  Piers. 

DOLLS — Indestructible  dolls.  Any  or  all  of  the  following 
materials  may  be  used  to  make  the  "dough" — ceresin  wax, 
parafline,  glue,  whiting,  wheat-paste,  linseed  oil  and  rosin,  col- 
ored with  oil  colors.  Moulded  in  forms  under  die  presses, 
dried,  sandpapered  to  remove  roughness,  enamelled  in  dip 
tank  (enamel  thinned  with  turpentine  or  benzine),  painting 
complexions  with  air  sprayers  or  hand  brush,  and  lacquering. 
Heating  of  wax  mixture  by  direct  heat,  use  of  benzine, 
enamel,  lacquer  are  main  hazards. 

DONKEY  ENGINE — A  small  steam  engine  attached  to  a 
larger  one  and  fed  from  the  same  boiler. 

DOOR  FRAME — The  case  in  which  a  door  opens  and 
shuts,  consisting  of  two  uprights  and  one  horizontal  piece 
connected  together  by  mortices  and  tenons. 


'viiTiaw5i      DOORS       oiTaaqawi 


129 


DOORS— See  Collapsible,  Revolving  and  Fire  Doors. 

DOORS — Safety  releasing  latch  for  exit  door.  The  latch 
combines  in  a  unit  the  usual  locking  devices,  the  door  lock 
and  top  and  bottom  latches.  The  usual  hardware  trim  is 
applied  on  the  outside  of  the  door.  On  the  inside,  about 
waist  high,  a  solid  bar  stretches  across  the  door.  This  bar 
stands  away  from  the  wood  and  connects  directly  with  the 
mechanism  of  the  latch.  Pressure  applied  to  any  part  of  the 
bar  instantly  releases  the  lock  and  latches  simultaneously 
and  permits  the  doors  to  open.  The  operation  of  these 
latches  under  conditions  of  a  panic  is  evident.  The  occu- 
pants of  the  building  rush  toward  the  exit  doors  and  the 
leaders  are  forced  against  the  bar  across  the  doors,  thus 
operating  the  latches  automatically  and  opening  the  doors  to 
safety. 

DORMER  WINDOW— A  window  which  projects  out  of 
the  wall  just  under  the  roof.  /aH  tic.. 

DOUBLE  BACKING  MACHINE— Used  in  paper  box 
making.  A  long  iron  table  heated  by  steam  coils;  on  one 
end  a  large  glue  pot  which  glues  one  side  of  each  of  two 
sheets  of  paper  which  runs  between  wood  or  iron  rollers,  is 
dried  while  passing  over  the  steam-heated  table  and  reeled  at 
opposite  end.     Glue  pots  should  be  steam  heated. 

DOVE-TAILING  MACHINE— Used  by  woodworkers  for 
cutting  the  fan  or  wedge-shaped  grooves  or  projections  used 
in  making  joints.  The  term  dove-tail  being  given  to  the  joint 
in  question  because  of  the  resemblance  of  the  interlocking 
projections  to  a  dove  tail  spread  out.  The  cutting  tool,  also 
shaped  like  a  dove  tail,  is  fixed  in  the  end  of  spindle  pro- 
jecting up  through  a  table  mounted  upon  an  iron  frame  and 
rotating  very  rapidly.     Danger  of  overheating  bearings. 

DOWEL — A  straight  pin  of  wood  or  metal  inserted  part 
way  into  each  of.  two  faces,  which  it  unites.    ' 

DRAGON'S  BLOOD—A  resinous  substatice  obtained  from 
tropical  trees.  '  -^"'-^'^  -  ''■       '-^^^--^^  ' 

DRAWING— Sec  Sketching.  '''-"  •'•'    '-■^''' 

DRAWN  STEEL— (Drawing  steel  from  a  flat  pt><^  IritO 

cup-shaped  pieces  and  tubes.)     The  machines  used  are  sim- 

.ilar  to  huge  stamping  presses.     The  thick  plate  of  steel  is 


^  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

placed  on  the  bed  of  the  press  and  a  plunger,  by  repeated 
thrusts,  makes  an  indentation  which  enlarges  as  the  process 
proceeds  and  eventually  presses  out  a  cup-shape  piece.  These 
machines  are  called  ''reducing"  or  "drawing  presses."  Each 
press,  has  a  different  sized  plunger,  the  largest  plunger  being 
used  first.  After  each  reducing  process,  the  steel  is  heated 
in  a  rotary  annealing  furnace  before  it  is  placed  in  the  next 
press.  When  the  tube  is  finally  drawn  out,  it  is  washed  in  a 
rust-proof  solution,  and  threaded  to  receive  the  nut.  Heavy 
machine-shop  hazard. 

DRESSMAKING— Usually  locate  in  dwellings  without 
salesrooms  or  show  rooms  and  the  owner  lives  on  the  prem- 
ises. Called  "parlor  shops."  Sewing  and  pressing  on  small 
scale.  If  under  five  hands  working,  without  show  room,  and 
if  owner  lives  on  premises  no  extra  rate  is  charged  for  this 
occupancy  by  some  rating  boards. 

DRESS  PATTERNS  (paper)— If  kept  in  cardboard  boxes 
in  the  open  may  be  counted  on  to  suffer  a  bad  loss  from 
smoke  and  water.  They  are  usually  made  of  the  cheapest 
grade  of  tissue  paper,  and  should  always  be  kept  in  metal 
cabinets.  In  dry  goods  and  notion  stores  they  form  consid- 
erable of  the  value.  A  full  set  of  dress  patterns  as  sold  by 
m.ost  large  dress  pattern  firms  is  worth  $250-$300,  and  are 
kept  in  pigeon-holed  cabinets  with  open  fronts.    See  Patterns. 

DRIP  CUPS  should  be  placed  on  all  shafting,  gearing  and 
sewing  machines  to  catch  oily  drips.  They  are  usually  made 
cup-shape  of  cast-iron.  Drip  pans  are  necessary  under  spig- 
ots of  oil  and  paint  barrels  in  paint  stores. 

DRIP  VALVES  on  sprinkler  equipments  must  be  sealed 
shut.     They  are  used  for  draining  the  pipes. 

DROP  FORCINGS — Forgings  whose  shape  is  impressed 
upon  them  by  dies  on  which  a  heavy  weight  is  allowed  to  fall. 

DRUGS  AND  CHEMICALS— The  present  European  war 
has  caused  a  scarcity  of  certain  chemicals  and  drugs  hitherto 
imported.  As  a  result,  local  concerns  have  hurriedly  erected 
small  plants  for  the  manufacture  of  such  goods.  These 
equipments  are  for  the  most  part  built  for  temporary  use  and 
.their  crudity  and  lack  of  stability  makes  them  unsafe.  See 
i^hjemistry;  also  Chemicals. 


DRUGS  131 

DRUG  STORES  (retail)— Usual  drugs  and  chemicals  in 
small  quantities.  May  bottle  benzine,  gasoline  or  alcohol,  or 
make  ointments  and  salves  by  direct  fire  heat  (grease  haz- 
ard). Basements  should  be  inspected  on  account  of  packing 
material,  empty  boxes,  surplus  stock  and  untidiness. 

DRUGS  (wholesale) — Risks  of  this  class  not  only  carry 
large  quantities  of  dangerous  drugs  and  chemicals,  but  they 
may  also  do  the  following  work:  Drug  grinding  in  stone  or 
steel  mills,  cutting,  compounding,  separating,  bolting,  sifting, 
mixing,  drying  and  packing.  All  combustibles  should  be  kept 
in  an  underground  vault,  cut  off  from  the  main  building  by 
standard  fire  doors.  Drugs  and  chemicals  such  as  ether, 
nitric  acid,  chlorate  of  potash,  etc.,  should  not  be  packed 
in  the  same  box  or  in  close  proximity  to  each  other,  as  a 
sudden  jar,  sufficient  to  break  the  bottles,  may  cause  an 
explosion.  Some  of  the  causes  of  fires,  according  to  fire 
reports,  are  spontaneous  combustion  in  barrel  of  powdered 
charcoal,  explosion  in  chlorate  of  potash  storage  closet, 
explosions  of  carboys  containing  nitric  acid  and  barium  diox- 
ide, explosion  in  barrel  of  tar,  fires  in  or  near  grinding  and 
pulverizing  machines  probably  due  to  friction  of  foreign  sub- 
stances or  grinding,  substances  containing  phosphorus,  igni- 
tion of  inflammable  vapors  in  compounding  room.  Fires  in 
this  class  are  extremely  dangerous  because  the  action  of  radi- 
ated heat  or  the  application  of  water  in  contact  with  certain 
chemicals,  will  cause  fires  or  explosions  of  chemicals  which  of 
themselves  would  not  be  dangerous  otherwise.  Phosphorus 
should  be  stored  under  water  outside  of  main  building.  (J. 
Younes.)     See  Chemicals. 

DRUID  ROOF  is  cotton  duck  soaked  in  paraffine,  borax 
and  sulphate  of  magnesia,  then  painted  with  a  composition 
of  liquid  asphaltum,  soapstone  and  graphite.  Said  to  be  both 
water  and  fireproof. 

DRUMMOND  LIGHT,  made  by  causing  the  burning  gases, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  to  strike  against  a  piece  of  lime.  The 
lime  becomes  intensely  heated  and  shines  with  a  dazzling 
brilliancy. 

DRY  CLEANING  AND  DRY  DYEING  (benzine  or 
paphtha  process).    Always  a  dangerous  exposure.    Buildings 


152  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

should  be  detached  from  surrounding  properties,  the  greater 
the  distance  the  better.  Entire  construction  should  be  fire- 
proof; no  basements;  and  areas  as  small  as  possible.  Dry- 
rooms  should  be  cut  off  from  main  buildings  and  cleaning 
rooms,  and  only  steam  heat  used.  Steam  pipes  should  have 
screens  of  wire  mesh  to  prevent  goods  coming  in  contact 
with  them.  Racks  for  clothing  should  be  iron.  Entrance  to 
washing  room  should  be  from  outside  only.  Perforated  pipes 
or  steam  jets  are  recommended  for  extinguishing  fires  in 
these  rooms;  the  control  valve  located  outside  of  building 
and  easily  accessible.  Ventilators  should  be  near  floor  as 
the  vapor  falls,  being  heavier  than  air;  vents  to  be  about  10 
inches  by  six  inches  with  wire  mesh  screens.  Distilling  ap- 
paratus for  reclaiming  dirty  liquids  is  usually  located  in 
cleaning  room.  Centrifugal  extractors  for  drying  washed 
goods  generate  electricity  through  rapid  motion,  and  a  spark 
is  liable  to  explode  the  vapor  in  the  machine.  Naphtha  and 
benzine  to  be  stored  underground  as  per  requirements.  See 
Dyeing  and  Cleaning. 

DRY  COLORS— See  Aniline  Dyes;  also  Color  Works. 

DRY  DISTILLATION— Heating  without  access  to  air,  in 
closed  receptacle. 

DRY  DOCKS — Fires  have  been  caused  by  shavings  and 
portable  furnaces,  soldering  devices,  oakum  storage,  paint- 
ing and  spontaneous   combustion   of  oakum  and  oily  waste. 

DRY  KILNS — The  most  common  causes  of  fires  are  over- 
heating, faulty  construction  and  uncleanliness.  The  intense 
heat  fosters  the  fire  when  started.  An  efficient  steam  jet  is 
the  best  fire  extinguisher.  Modern  kilns  are  made  of  con- 
crete with  tile  roofs.     See  Kilning. 

DRY  PIPE  SPRINKLER  EQUIPMENT— In  unheated 
buildings  where  the  water  is  liable  to  freeze  sprinklers  are  in- 
stalled "dry  pipe,"  i.  e.,  instead  of  water  the  piping  contains 
air  under  pressure  which  holds  shut  an  automatic  water-con- 
trol valve.  This  valve  opens  and  admits  water  into  the  pipes 
when  the  pressure  is  weakened  by  the  escape  of  air  through 
sprinklers  opened  by  fire.  Test  of,  in  Fireproof  Cold 
Storage.  Test  number  one  was  made  with  the  circulating 
refrigeration  system  in  full  operation  ancj  started  with  an  in- 


DRY  ROOMS  133 

itial  temperature  on  the  floor  of  approximately  30  deg.  F. 
The  first  sprinkler  head  operated  17^  minutes  after  the  light- 
ing of  the  first  pan  of  alcohol.  Alcohol  pans  were  lighted  in 
succession  every  30  seconds.  Test  number  two  was  made  with 
the  circulating  system  completely  cut  off  by  starting  with  in- 
itial temperature  of  30  deg.  F.  The  first  sprinkler  head  oper- 
ated 15  minutes  after  lighting  of  the  first  pan.  Extracted 
from  detail  report  made  by  E.  S.  Clayton,  March  19,  1913. 
See  Sprinklers  (Dry  Pipes).    See  Dry  Valves. 

DRY  POWDER  EXTINGUISHERS— Their  use  is  not 
encouraged.  They  are  inferior  to  water  or  chemicals.  Com- 
posed of  about  85  per  cent,  bicarbonate  soda  and  15  per  cent, 
iron  oxide,  silica,  starch,  fuller's  earth,  Venetian  red;  yellow 
ochre  is  added  to  prevent  caking.  Will  cake  in  damp  places 
and  powder  may  lose  its  strength.  They  are,  however,  bet- 
ter than  frozen  water  pails  in  unheated  buildings.  See 
Chemical  Extinguishers. 

DRY  ROOMS  should  be  of  all-metal  design  and  steam- 
heated.  Wood  dry  rooms,  even  if  lined  with  lock-jointed 
metal,  are  not  approved.    See  illustration  on  page  134. 

DRY  ROT — Decay  in  such  portions  of  the  timber  of  houses 
as  are  exposed  to  dampness.    The  best  preventive  is  creosote. 

DRY  VALVES — Attached  to  sprinkler  systems  in  buildings 
without  heat.  Ten  pounds  of  air  is  sufficient  to  hold  back 
sixty  pounds  of  water,  but  most  engineers  have  the  air-gauge 
show  25  pounds  of  air  to  be  positively  safe. 

DRYERS — Usually  made  of  soaps  composed  of  lead  and 
manganese  in  some  form  or  other,  usually  as  the  linoleate  or 
the  resinate.  They  are  needed  in  all  paints.  It  is  assumed 
that  they  exert  no  chemical  action,  but  attract  oxygen  from 
the  air  by  virtue  of  their  presence.  May  contain  volatile  oils. 
(See  Japan  Dryers.) 

DRYING  OILS — The  chief  one  is  linseed  oil,  derived  from 
flaxseed.  Subject  to  spontaneous  combustion,  especially  if 
mixed  with  organic  matter. 

DUALIN — A  foreign  make  of  nitroglycerine.    Explosive. 

DUMBWAITER  DOORS  in  the  basement  of  apartment 
houses  are  usually  blocked  open  or  tied  open  so  as  not  to  in- 
convenience the  errand  boy  delivering  orders.     Boys   stand 


134 


INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


at  these  shafts  and  smoke.  The  bottoms  of  shafts  are  some- 
times filled  with  waste  paper  and  rubbish  even  in  the  "high- 
class"  apartment  houses.     Sometimes  large  wooden  packing 

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boxes  filled  with  paper  adjoin  these  shafts.  'Tire  patrol"  re- 
ports show  numerous  lires  from  these  causes.  Dumbwaiter 
shafts  should  be  of  terra-cotta,  concrete,  common  brick  or 


DUST  iSS 

plaster  block  with  labeled  self-closing  fire  doors  at  all  open- 
ings.    See  Shafts. 

DUMPS  FOR  STREET  CLEANING  DEPARTMENTS, 
especially  on  water  fronts,  are  littered  with  debris  and  rub- 
bish scattered  all  around,  and  underneath  piers  and  docks  in 
the  vicinity.  All  such  piers  should  be  enclosed  from  low- 
water  line  to  pier  floor,  so  as  to  prevent  waste  floating  under- 
neath.    Many  fires  at  these  places. 

DUPLICATING  CARVER— The  work  is  clamped  to 
frames  in  a  similar  position  to  pattern  or  model,  and  by  a 
parallel  motion  a  blank  tool  and  small  cutters  are  made  to 
pass  simultaneously  over  the  outline  and  surface  of  the  pat- 
tern. Machine  parts  rotate  5,000  to  15,000  a  minute  and  heat 
up.     See  Spindle   Carver. 

DURABOLD,  a  waterproofing  compound.  Flash  110  deg. 
F.     Classed  as  non-volatile. 

DUST — Accumulations  of  dust  on  bearings  of  machinery 
cause  undue  friction  and  numerous  fires.  Fires  flash  along 
dust-covered  shelves  or  woodwork.  The  presence  of  much 
dust  denotes  poor  housekeeping.  Ordinary  dust,  such  as 
found  in  offices,  office  buildings  and  schools,  consists  of  hu- 
man hair  or  hair  from  soft  hats,  wool  and  cotton  from  cloth- 
ing, sand  and  dirt  tracked  into  building,  wings  from  dead 
flies,  paper,  iron  from  nails  in  shoes,  carbon  from  coal  smoke, 
salt  from  perspiration.  The  presence  of  bacteria  in  dust, 
aside  from  the  fire  hazard,  is  the  reason  boards  of  health  and 
labor  departments  demand  proper  ventilation. 

The  most  hazardous,  the  most  easily  ignited  and  the  most 
explosive  dusts  are  sugar,  dextrine,  starch  and  cocoa.  Almost 
any  finely  divided  material  will  explode  if  mixed  with  air  in 
the  proper  proportion  and  ignited — dust  of  coal,  soot,  grain, 
bronze  powder,  celluloid,  lycopodium,  dust  from  buff  wheels. 
Where  dust  is  produced  in  any  process,  proper  ventilation 
with  blowers  to  conduct  the  dust  from  the  machines  to  a  safe 
place  should  be  provided,  and  if  the  dust  is  of  an  explosive 
character,  explosion  vents  (small  boxes  or  openings  provided 
with  covers  kept  in  place  with  spring  hinges)  should  be  pro- 
vided on  the  conveying  pipes.  As  with  sugar  dust,  there  is 
often    sufficient    violence    in    explosions    to    wreck    buildings 


ft 


136 


INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


where  the  quantity  of  suspended  dust  is  sufficient  to  explode. 
See  Fly. 

DUSTLESS  DUSTERS— Principally  flannel  saturated  with 
linseed  oil  and  paraffine.    Subject  to  spontaneous  combustion. 

DWELLINGS — There  are  more  fires  in  dwellings  than  in 
any  other  class  of  risk.  Were  it  not  for  the  millions  of  them 
insured  they  would  not  be  written  at  current  rates.  Although 
many  lives  are  at  stake,  building  and  fire  departments  and 
insurance    companies    give   less    supervision   to    them    either 


In  case  of  fire,  close  every  door  you  pass  through  on  your 
way  out  of  a  burning  building.  In  this  manner  the  oxygen 
necessary   for   combustion   is   reduced   to   a   minimum. 


before  or  after  completion  or  occupancy  than  to  other  classes 
of  buildings.  There  are  more  defects  of  common  hazards  in 
the  ordinary  dwelling  than  in  the  owner's  factory.  The  ten- 
ants are,  through  familiarity,  blind  or  indifferent  to  the  need 
of  fire  prevention.    As  winter  approaches  fires  are  started  in 


•         OMITiaWH  .  I>YE  WOOD    jITDaqgUi  1^7 

Stoves  or  furnaces  with  no  thought  of  the  need  of  cleaning 
chimneys  of  birds*  nests  or  soot,  replacing  rusted  smoke 
pipes,  protection  under  stoves  or  the  'general  condition.  Un- 
safe gas  jets,  which  are  penalized  ten  cents  in  nearly  all 
rate  schedules  of  factories,  are  numerous  in  dwellings  and 
cause  many  fires.     See  Apartment  Houses, 

Palatial  Country  Houses  (Journal  of  Commerce,  Nov.  27, 
1916),  owing  to  the  lack  of  fire  protection,  open  country  and 
the  high  values  contained  therein,  are  now  looked  upon  by 
^underwriters  as  business  to  be  avoided  if  possible. 

DWELLINGS  (fireproof) — Rating  Bureau  Requirements. 
All  floor  openings  leading  from  the  basement  to  the  upper 
floors  must  be  cut  off  in  the  basement  by  brick,  terra  cotta 
or  concrete  shafts  at  least  four  inches  thick  with  solid  kala- 
mein  or  kalamein  and  wired  glass  doors;  also  kalamein  trim. 
If  there  is  a  continuous  shaft  from  basement  to  upper  floors, 
the  former  must  be  cut  off  in  similar  manner.  Large  air 
ducts  used  in  indirect  heating  systems  need  no  cut  off,  unless 
they  have  openings  in  the  basement,  in  which  case  automatic 
dampers  must  be  installed.  Elevator  dcum  and  motor  room 
must  be  cut  off  in  a  standard  manneriP.IjA  ' 

DYE  can  be  made  from  the  roots,  leaves  and  stalks  of  net- 
tles.    Used  in  woolen  stuffs. 

DYE  WOOD — Extracted  from  logwood  and  fustic.  Fires 
are  sometimes  caused  from  the  union  of  chemicals  used. 
Where  stock  is  kept,  especially  in  ground  or  powdered  form, 
even  small  fires  usually  results  in  severe  losses  owing  to 
water  making  the   colors   run.     An  unprofitable   class. 

DYE  WOODS,  such  as  logwood,  are  prepared  for  extract- 
ing by  first  cutting  the  logs  in  small  pieces  the  size  of 
kindling  wood.  These  are  put  in  an  all-iron  knife  grinder, 
revolving  at  about  950  r.p.m.,  then  ground  finer  in  corrugated 
iron  roller  machine,  revolving  at  about  1,100  r.p.m.,  which 
reduces  the  wood  to  finely  divided  particles  ready  for  the 
steam  vats.  Hazards  of  high-speed  grinders,  high-tension 
electric   currents,   transformer.     See  Logwood. 

DYE  WORKS— See  Bleach,  Dye  and  Print  Works. 

DYEING  AND  CLEANING  WORKS— Equipment  con- 
sists   of   revolving   washing    drums    using    soap    and   water, 


13S  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

centrifugal  extractors,  dye  tubs  and  kettles,  drying  rooms, 
gas  or  electric  pressing  irons,  gas-heated  crimpers  (or  steam), 
mangles  and  finishing.  Materials  used  are  chloroform  (for 
removing  spots)  alcohol,  benzine,  acetic  acid,  sulphuric  acid, 
ammonia,  oxalic  acid,  sal-soda,  glycerine,  neatsfoot  oil,  per- 
oxide of  hydrogen  and  blue  stone.     See   Dry  Cleaning. 

DYERS,  as  a  mordaunt,  use  thin  solution  of  nitrate  of 
iron  and  water  for  loading  green  cotton  goods.  See  Dry 
Cleaning  and  Dyeing. 

DYNAMITE — A  high  explosive  formed  by  mixing  nitro- 
glycerine with  an  absorbent  material  to  form  a  plastic  solid. 
Frozen  Dynamite  should  never  be  used.  Most  high  ex- 
plosives freeze  at  temperatures  between  45  and  50  deg.  F., 
and  when  frozen  will  explode  only  imperfectly  or  not  at  all. 
When  frozen  it  is  thawed  out  before  being  used.  See  Ex- 
plosives. 

DYNAMITING  BUILDINGS  to  check  the  path  of  a 
large  or  sweeping  fire  is  seldom  employed  in  the  city,  al- 
though more  or  less  explosives  have  been  used  for  this 
purpose  in  all   conflagrations. 

DYNAMO  CLAUSE— See  Electrically-driven  Machinery. 

DYNAMOS — See    Electrically-driven   Machinery. 


EAGLE  SOLVENT— A  benzine  substitute,  classed  as  non- 
volatile. 

EARNED  PREMIUM— That  portion  of  the  premium  rep- 
resenting the  length  of  time  the  company  has  assumed  lia- 
bility; the  premium  for  the  length  of  time  the  policy  has 
been  in  force,  and  retained  by  the  company  in  case  of  can- 
cellation.    See  Premium. 

EARTH  OIL  is  petroleum. 

EAVES — The  edge  of  a  roof  which  overhangs  a  wall. 
It  is  designed  to  carry  off  the  water  without  flowing  down 
the  side  of  the  wall. 

ECCENTRIC — A  circular  plate  or  pulley  surrounded  by 
a  loose  ring  and  attached  to  a  revolving  shaft  and  moving 
around  with  it  but  not  having  the  same  center,  for  pro- 
ducing an  alternate  motion. 

EDGED  TOOLS— See  Instruments. 

EDGE-RUNNERS— See  Chasers. 

EFFECTIVE  LOAD— The  effective  span  in  feet  multi- 
plied by  the  weight  of  the  distributed  load  per  foot  run. 

EGG  DEALERS — Hazards  of  candling  eggs  and  pack- 
ing material.     See   Candling. 

EGGS — If  eggs  are  thoroughly  wet  while  in  storage  they 
are  liable  to  become  spoiled  in  a  short  time.  Water  re- 
moves from  the  shell  of  the  egg  a  gelatinous  covering  which 
helps  to  keep  air  and  germs  out  of  the  inside  of  the  egg. 
See  Candling;  see  Consequential  Loss. 

EJOO— Called   Indian   hemp,  a  black  fibre. 

ELECTRICITY,  properly  installed,  is  the  safest  kind  of 
light.  Repairs  or  extensions  should  be  made  only  by  ex- 
perts. Regular  examination  is  necessary  to  detect  defects. 
Amateurs  are  responsible  for  many  of  the  electric  wire 
fires.     Electric  power  is  safer  than  other  forms  because  all 

139 


140  INSI^ECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

the  power  is  transmitted  through  stationary  wires  and  not 
rapidly  moving  belts  or  shafting  which  have  friction  gear- 
ing, overheated  bearings  and  which  necessitate  floor  open- 
ings. 

When  repairing  or  altering,  all  old  wires  or  "dead  ends" 
should  be  removed  as  they  are  apt  to  become  charged  and 
cause  fire. 

A  large  percentage  of  the  so-called  "unknown  cause"  fires 
are  directly  traceable  to  poor  insulation,  poor  wiring,  over- 
loading wires  without  proper  fuses,  or  poor  installation  of 
motors.  Overfusing  is  a  common  happening.  Direct  cur- 
rent (brush  motors)  should  be  carefully  protected  from 
dust.  Induction  motors,  while  not  subject  to  this  dust 
hazard,  should  be  very  carefully  wired  because  the  hazards 
from  currents  are  greater  than  at  brush  motors. 

Among  the  conductors  are  metals,  charcoal,  animal  fluids, 
water,  vegetable  and  animal  bodies,  flame,  smoke  and  vapor. 
Among  the  non-conductors  (called  insulators)  are  rust,  oils, 
phosphorus,  lime,  chalk,  rubber,  camphor,  marble,  porcelain, 
dry  gases  and  air,  wool,  silk,  glass,  transparent  stones,  wax 
and  amber.     Some  of  these  become  conductors  when  wet. 

Defective  insulation,  such  as  wires  hung  on  nails,  is  apt 
to  cause  short  circuits  through  abrasion  or  the  wearing  off 
of  insulation,  the  arc  setting  fire  to  surroundings.  Conduits 
are  the  best  form  of  wiring.  Wires  strung  loosely  are  dan- 
gerous, and  apt  to  become  damaged.  Water  in  leaky  con- 
duits and  wires  in  contact  with  dampness,  such  as  under- 
ground wires,  causes  blowouts. 

ELECTRIC  ARC— The  intensely  bright  arc  produced  be- 
tween two  carbon  points  in  air,  when  a  current  of  electricity 
passes  from  one  to  the  other  across  a  gap. 

ELECTRIC  CABLE  DUCTS— See  Pipe  Shafts. 

ELECTRIC  DEVICES— The  National  Board  states  that 
30,000  fires  a  year  are  caused  by  carelessness  in  using  elec- 
tric devices.  A  new  form  of  peril  is  coming  into  prominence 
as  a  cause  of  much  destruction,  and  its  fires  are  so  directly 
associated  with  carelessness  that  it  has  been  deemed  neces- 
sary to  issue  a  special  warning.  Because  of  their  convenience 
small  electric  devices,  such  as  pressing  irons,  curling  irons, 


ELECTRIC  HAZARD  141 

toasters,  electric  pads  or  blankets,  electric  plate  warmers  and 
electric  sterilizers  or  heaters,  are  now  to  be  found  in  nearly 
every  community.  If  these  were  used  with  proper  care  the 
danger  would  be  negligible;  but,  unfortunately,  a  proportion 
of  their  users  do  not  realize  the  peril  of  leaving  them  in  cir- 
cuit when  not  in  use.  In  such  cases  these  devices  tend  to 
become  overheated,  whereupon  they  are  liable  to  set  fire  to 
anything  combustible  with  which  they  come  in  xontact. 
Most  of  these  fires  are  small,  but  the  aggregate  loss  is  large, 
and  occasional  instances  show  extensive  damage,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  $350,000  fire  in  a  Boston  residence.  This  was 
traced  to  an  electric  plate-warmer  in  the  butler's  pantry. 
Fires  of  this  class  furnish  a  special  peril  to  life,  being  most 
frequent  in  dwellings,  and  often  breaking  out  in  the  night. 
A  characteristic  example  is  that  in  which  an  electric  press- 
ing iron  is  left  upon  the  ironing  board  with  the  current 
turned  on  and  then  forgotten.  In  such  a  case  the  fire  may 
not  occur  until  some  hours  later.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
most  of  these  fires  are  entirely  preventible  and  can  be  charged 
to  nothing  but  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  user.  Various 
safety  devices  have  been  added  by  certain  of  the  manufac- 
turers of  these  articles,  and  among  them  are  some  that  are 
fairly  effective,  but  there  is  one  absolute  precaution  which 
should  be  borne  in  mind  at  all  times  by  every  user,  namely, 
that  of  shutting  off  the  current  when  not  personally  and 
continuously  supervising  its  use.     See  Electric  Iron. 

ELECTRIC  HAZARD— In  the  eyes  of  the  underwriter  it 
is  a  question  of  heat  and  not  light.  Heat  is  caused  by  wires 
carrying  too  great  a  current;  therefore  it  is  necessary  to  find 
out  if  wires  are  overloaded  or  provided  with  proper  fuses. 

ELECTRIC  IRON — An  electric  iron  in  use  in  Dayton, 
Ohio,  was  left  on  a  table  and  burned  its  way  through  the 
table,  through  the  flooring,  then  through  a  joist  that  sup- 
ported the  flooring  and  was  found  dangling  by  its  wire  in 
the  room  below  without  firing  the  building.  They  should 
have  a  thermostat  switch  placed  in  the  iron  to  automatically 
cut  off  the  current  whenever  the  temperature  exceeds  a  pre- 
determined point,  usually  400  to  600  deg.  F.  See  Electric 
Devices. 


142  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

ELECTRIC  LAMP  SHADES— These  shades  are  made  of 
colored  fabric,  and  have  shaped  corrugated  sides  designed 
to  stretch  to  snugly  fit  naked  incandescent  electric  light 
globes  with  which  they  come  in  contact.  The  use  of  these 
shades  is  fraught  with  danger  as  electric  light  bulbs  readily 
heat  sufficiently  to  ignite  material  with  which  they  may  come 
in  contact.  Unsuspecting  customers  are  apt  to  purchase 
these  shades  and  install  them  in  their  homes  for  decorative 
purposes  near  curtained  windows,  drapery  or  other  inflam- 
mable material  where  the  light  might  be  left  burning  in- 
definitely and  thereby  cause  a  fire. 

ELECTRIC  MOTOR— A  machine  by  which  electrical  en- 
ergy is  transformed  into  mechanical  energy  to  rotate  a  shaft.. 

ELECTRICAL  SUPPLY  STOCK— Work  is  repair- 
ing and  assembling  fixtures,  repairing  motors,  winding, 
afmatures,  buffing,  soldering,  relacquering.  Use  considerable; 
packing  material.  Numerous  portable  electric  light  wires  for' 
displaying  domes  and  globes  is  a  poor  feature.  The  insula- 
tion wears  off  by  continuous  use  and  careless  handling,  and 
short  circuits  are  frequent. 

ELECTRICAL  TERMS  —  Broadly  speaking,  ampere 
means  volume;  volt,  pressure;  and  watts,  the  resulting  quan- 
tity. A  volt  is  the  measure  of  pressure.  Amperes  multi- 
plied by  volts  equals  watts.  The  quantity  (watts)  of  elec- 
tricity delivered  over  a  single  circuit  is  the  direct  product  of 
the  volume  (amperes),  multiplied  by  the  pressure  (volts)^ 
A  thousand  (kilo)  watts  are  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  one 
and  one-third  horse  power.  Lighting  circuits  usually  carry 
105  to  120  volts,  although  some  towns  have  220  volt  systems.. 

ELECTRICALLY-DRIVEN  MACHINERY— If  fire  takes; 
place  within  the  machine  itself,  the  fire  policy  is  not  liable 
for  damage  to  the  machinery.  If,  however,  the  fire  extends; 
to  other  property,  the  company  is  liable  for  the  property  so> 
destroyed.  If  fire  starts  elsewhere  than  in  the  machinery,, 
the  company  is  liable  for  the  damage  to  the  machinery. 

ELECTROLYSIS— The  destructive  effect  upon  metals  of 
an  electric  current.  The  most  common  form  is  the  effect 
upon  underground  pipes,  lead-covered  cables,  and  metal  work 
of  building  foundations.     The  effect  is  the  pitting  or  erosion 


ELECTROTYPING  ^^3 

where  the  electrical  current  leaves  it.  Stray  currents  from 
power  houses  seeking  return  to  the  power  house  utilize 
pipes,  metal  structures  and  cables  in  their  path  (usually  be- 
cause the  return  feeders  are  of  insufficient  capacity).  The 
damage  occurs  where  the  current  leaves  these  structures. 

Electrolysis  (electrolytic  corrosion)  is  disintegration 
caused  by  stray  electric  currents  attacking  underground 
steel  work.  Where  the  electrolysis  is  severe  or  continuous, 
it  may  cause  the  collapse  of  steel  skeleton  buildings. 

ELECTROPLATES— Inspection  should  be  made  to  see  if 
wood  backed,  also  whether  kept  in  fireproof  vault,  in  stacks 
or  in  boxes. 

ELECTROTYPING— Wood  cuts,  half-tones,  and  zinc 
etchings  are  so  much  in  use  at  the  present  time  that  it  is 
necessary  to  describe  briefly  their  manufacture,  and  also  to 
mention  some  of  the  hazards  found  in  their  production. 
These  cuts  are  sometimes  placed  in  the  press  with  other 
type,  as  in  ordinary  printing,  but  quite  frequently  electro- 
types are  made  from  them;  this  is  especially  true  of  wood 
cuts.  The  electrotype  is  then  placed  in  the  press  while  the 
original  is  preserved  for  future  use.  In  wood  engravings, 
Turkish  boxwood  is  cut  into  pieces  of  the  desired  size  and 
the  surface  to  receive  the  design  is  finished  so  as  to  be  per- 
fectly flat  and  smooth.  The  next  step  is  to'  have  the  design 
or  picture  traced  or  drawn  on  the  block  to  enable  the  en- 
graver to  begin  his  work.  Sometimes  this  is  done  by  hand, 
but  now-a-days  most  of  this  work  is  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  photographic  negatives.  The  object  to  be  reproduced 
is  photographed  by  means  of  the  negative,  the  design  or  pic- 
ture is  printed  on  the  face  of  the  block  which  has  previously 
been  covered  with  a  sensitized  solution.  Arc  lights  are  gener- 
ally used  to  do  this  printing;  this  makes  it  unnecessary  to 
depend  upon  the  proper  weather  condition.  The  engraver 
then  takes  the  design,  and  with  hand  tools  cuts  away  those 
portions  of  the  face  of  the  block  which  must  be  removed  to 
produce  the  design  in  relief.  Nothing  but  hand  tools  are 
used  in  this  work.  A  "lining"  machine  is  used  to  produce 
the  fine  parallel  lines  appearing  on  these  cuts.  No  hazard 
of  much  importance  presents  itself  in  this  business,  except 


144  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

that  of  arc  lights,  which  should  be,  and  generally  are,  pro- 
tected by  glass  globes. 

ELEMI — A  composition  of  resin  used  in  lacquer  making. 

ELEMINE — Rosin  boiled  in  water  containing  carbonate 
of  soda. 

ELEVATION — In  reviewing  plans  it  is  the  drawing  which 
shows  the  height  of  the  building  with  all  the  stories  com- 
bined. 

ELEVATOR  BOOT— The  lowest  part  of  a  'lofter"  or 
elevator  (also  termed  elevator  leg),  enclosing  the  pulley  un- 
der which  passes  the  carrying  belt. 

ELEVATOR  BUILDINGS— All  buildings  such  as  grain 
elevators,  used  in  the  handling  of  any  combustible  substance, 
especially  where  finely  divided  dust  is  liable  to  be  produced, 
should  be  built  of  fireproof  materials.  Non-fireproof  construc- 
tion type  have  a  bad  loss  record. 

ELEVATOR  HEAD— The  opposite  end  to  the  ''boot"  en- 
closing the  driving  pulley.     See  Strut  Board. 

ELEVATOR  LEG — The  narrow,  continuous  boxing,  en- 
closing a  belt-and-bucket  or  chain-and-bucket  elevator, 
through  one  or  more  floors. 

ELEVATORS  are  used  in  grain  warehouses  or  breweries 
to  convey  grain  from  one  floor  to  another,  and  also  from 
boats  to  cars.  In  the  latter  case,  it  is  called  a  "marine 
leg." 

EMBOSSERS — Used  by  woodworkers  for  pressing  pat- 
terns on  wood  in  imitation  of  carving.  The  machine  con- 
sists of  a  plate  or  roller  bearing  a  design  in  relief  with  a 
device  to  hold  the  work  to  be  embossed  and  another  device 
for  heating  the  plate  or  roller.  Gas  heat  is  generally  used, 
although  live  steam  and  sometimes  gasoline  have  been 
used. 

EMBOSSING  PRESS— Similar  to  a  cylinder  press.  One 
type  is  the  revolving  press,  the  revolving  portion  of  which 
is  covered  with  fine  needles  which  make  impressions  on  the 
paper.  Others  are  similar  to  a  screw  press,  in  which  case  a 
die  is  used  for  making  the  impression.  Both  are  usually 
gas  heated,  and  flexible  connections  are  sometimes  necessary 
unless  the  "bed"  or  stationary  part  of  the  press  is  heated,  in 


;4iTiaw>i^^^^o^f^^^^ES  145 

which  case  a  rigid  iron  pipe  connection  can  be  made.  See 
Printers. 

EMBROIDERIES— Dress  goods,  lace,  netting  with  braids, 
cords,  spangles  or  beaded  cord  are  embroidered  on  a  "Bon- 
naz  embroider,"  a  type  of  machine  similar  to  the  ordinary 
sewing  machine.  The  best  of  machines  are  imported.  Hem- 
stitchers,  scalloping  and  imitation  hand  embroidery  machines 
are  similar  to  the  ordinary  sewing  machine.  A  "braider"  is 
a  circular  all-iron  machine  similar  to  a  knitting  machine  for 
making  bodies  of  sweaters.  On  it  round,  flat,  elastic  or 
soutache  braids  are  woven.  The  rough  edges  of  braids  are 
singed  over  a  gas  flame,  alcohol,  gasoline  or  kerosene  torch 
or  lamp.  "Chenille"  machine:  a  machine  designed  to  make 
cords,  tassels,  etc.,  as  used  on  portieres  or  draperies,  dress 
goods  or  millinery  trimmings.  Usually  of  wood,  a  small  af- 
fair, the  yarn  being  drawn  through  the  machine  to  a  larg^e 
wheel  on  opposite  side  of  room,  the  reverse  action  of  the 
wheel  and  the  chenille  machine  making  the  twist.  The  ma- 
chine is  usually  very  oily  and  covered  with  lint.  Swiss  em- 
broidery: Swiss  machines  are  large,  5  to  15  yards  long, 
(Weighing  2  to  18  tons.  Should  always  be  set  on  substantial 
bases,  preferably  in  the  basement  or  first  floors  of  buildings, 
the  foundation  resting  on  terra  firma.  The  pattern  is  placed 
on  a  board  at  one  end  of  the  machine,  an  operator  tracing 
the  design  with  an  arm  (called  pantograph),  which  also  regu- 
lates the  action  of  needles  and  punches  which  embroiders 
the  goods.  The  goods  are  stretched  along  the  entire  length 
of  the  machine,  which  is  motor-driven.  An  "automat"  at^ 
tached  to  a  Swiss  machine  takes  the  place  of  the  operator. 
It  works  on  the  same  principle  as  a  player-piano,^  having  a 
perforated  pattern  instead  of  a  music  roll,  which  makes  the 
design,  and  is  also  motor-driven.  Oily,  lint  covered  motor, 
oily  floor  and  swinging  gas  brackets  are  the  hazards  of  these 
Swiss  machines. 

Passementerie  is  the  edging,  bead  work,  or  lace  trimmings 
for  dress  goods.    All  hand  work;  no  material  hazard. 

Stamping  is  transferring  a  pattern  to  piece  of  goods 
to  be  embroidered.  The  transferring  is  done  by  rubbing  a 
piece  of  colored  chalk,  wax  or  lamp-black  thinned  with  ben- 


m 


¥»te  INSPECTION   AMD    UNDERWRITING 

zine  over  the  perforations  of  the  patterns  similar  to  a 
"pounce."  » 

Carbonizing — Braids  are  frequently  sewn  on  buckram 
which  has  been  treated  with  sizing  of  diluted  sulphuric  acid. 
Heat  tends  to  disintegrate  the  buckram.  The  goods  are 
placed  on  a  wire  mesh  over  a  gas  flame  in  an  oven.  The 
heat  carbonizes  the  buckram  and  leaves  the  braid  intact;  'A 
source  of  danger,  unless  the  oven  is  properly  constructed. 
Carbonizing  is  also  done  by  passing  a  hot  iron  over  the 
buckram. 

Plaiting,  Ruching,  Fluting  and  Crimpers  are  gas-heated. 
Unless  the  rollers  become  overheated,  thereby  burning  the 
goods,  there  is  little  hazard  if  the  gas  connection  is  of  iron. 

Bleaching  is  done  with  benzoin  or  hydrogen  peroxide; 
cleaned  with  alcohol,  turpentine,  benzine  or  chloroform; 
dyed  in  aniline  colors.  Important  hazards  are  heating  of  siz- 
ing kettles,  rubber  tubes  at  gas-heated  machines,  swinging 
gas  lights  at  Swiss  machines,  stamping  with  benzine  and 
lamp-black,  and  the  carbonizing  ovens.  Very  susceptible 
stocks.  Water  will  streak  the  goods,  mildew,  or  make  the 
colors  run.  After  a  fire  they  should  be  immediately  sorted 
and  dried.  Wash  embroideries  generally  yield  a  good  salvage. 
Imported  machinery  with  necessary  loss  of  time  in  replac- 
ing parts  must  be  considered  in  "use  and  occupancy" 
lines.  (W.  O.  Lincoln,  "Live  Articles  on  Special  Hazards," 
The  Weekly  Underwriter.)  , 

EMERY  AND  SANDPAPER  MFG.— Hazards  of  crush- 
ers for  raw  materials,  dry  rooms,  pulverizing.  Paper  is 
coated  with  glue  and  by  continuous  process  passes  through 
a  steam  heated  machine  where  the  dust-is  deposited  On  the 
paper.  '  ooJsirifmjttHq   I)jb:-ioii3q 

EMPTY  BOXES— All  kinds  of  fii-e  wdo'd,  tioxes,  etcVin 
yards  and  alleys  should  be  stacked  neatly  and  kept  free 
from  rubbish. 

ENAMELS  are  mixtures  of  pigments,  varnish,  oils  and 
japan. 

ENCLOSED — Surrounded  by  partitions  to  prevent 
draughts  and  fires  from  spreading  from  floor  to  floor.  See 
Shafts. 


ENEMY  ALIEN  CLAUSE  147 

END  CONSTRUCTION— As  applied  to  laying  terra  cotta, 
is  the  same  as  side  construction,  except  the  blocks  are  laid  on 
ends  instead  of  sides.     See  Side   Construction".  ''' 

ENDORSEMENT— A  term  expressing  a  change  in*  the 
original  contract  of  insurance,  thus:  change  of  locatiqri, 
name,  increasing  or  reducing  amount,  etc.,  are  noted'  oti 
policy  and  signed  by  agent  or  officer  of  the  company.     •  ■^^"' 

ENEMY  ALIEN  CLAUSE— The  Executive  Committee 
recommend  and  urge  all  members  of  the  N.  Y.  F.  I.  Exchange 
to  employ  on  all  policies  hereafter  issued  in  this  area  the 
following  clause  in  order  to  make  reasonably  sure  of  avoid- 
ing violation  "of  the  so-called  Trading  with  the  Enemy  Act 
of  the  United  States  Congress,  approved  October  6,  1917: 

"This  entire  policy  shall  be  void  if  the  insurance  here- 
under, directly  or  indirectly,  is  for,  or  on  account  of,  or 
on  behalf  of  or  for  the  benefit  of  an  'enemy*  or  *ally  of 
enemy'  (as  defined  in  the  Act  of  Congress,  approved  Octo- 
"Ber  6,  1917,  known  as  the  'Trading  with  the  Enemy  Act,'  or 
iamendments  thereto,  or  in  any  proclamation  of  the  Presi- 
dent pursuant  thereto),  or  is  for  any  person  who  is  acting 
for^  on  account  of,  or  on  behalf  of,  or  for  the  benefit  of  any 
'enemy*  or  'ally  of  enemy*  unless  the  interest  of  the  'enemy* 
or  'ally  of  enemy*  has  been  conveyed,  transferred,  assigned 
and  delivered  to  the  Alien  Property  Custodian,  or  unless 
with  a  license  from  the  President  of  the  United  States  per- 
mission is  granted  to  injure  the  'enemy'  or  'ally  of  enemy.*** 

The  foregoing  has  been  agreed  upon  in  conference  with 
the  representatives  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers and  other  company  organizations  and  interests  for 
adpption  in  all  cases  where  policies  appear  to  protect  an 
unnamed  beneficiary  such  as  would  be  covered  by  the  trust 
and  commission  clause,  the  expression  "heirs  of*  or  "estate 
of"  or  "a^  now  or  may  hereafter  be  constituted'*  or  "on 
storage  or  for  repairs,'*  etc.,  etc.  (Author*s  Note — The  sit- 
uation regarding  the  trust  and  commission  clause  has  not 
been  definitely  settled.) 

ENGINE  OILS— Hydrocarbon  oils  of  gravity  32  to  33 
degrees.  Flasji  point  300  to  400  deg.  F.  Animal  or  vegeta- 
ble oils  are  only  used  in  mineral  oil  compounds. 


148  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

ENGRAVERS  use  plate  printing  presses  somewhat  similar 
to  transfer  presses  in  printing  risks  (only  much  larger).  To 
keep  the  ink  warm  a  gas  jet  is  usually  used,  but  kerosene  oil 
lamps  may  be  found.  Use  of  kerosene  oil  lamps  should  be 
discontinued.  Benzine  is  used  for  cleaning.  Metal  should  be 
placed  under  the  presses.  Oily  waste  to  be  kept  in  safety 
can. 

EPSOM  SALTS— See,  Sulphate  pf  Magnesia. 

EQUAL  TO— An  insurance  term  meaning  the  adjoining 
building  is  higher,  therefore  being  equal  to  a  parapetted  wall. 
A  very  high  ceiling  building  or  story  of  a  building,  such  as 
a  church,  may  be  described  as  being  one  equal  to  two  (or 
more)   stories  in  height. 

ERADELINE— Flash  point  100  deg.  F.  Classed  non- 
volatile. 

ERADICATOR  PAINT  OR  GREASE  may  contain  ether, 
gasoline,  alcohol,  acetone,  etc. 

ERWIN  AUTOMATIC  EXTINGUISHING  OUTFIT— 
For  extinguishing  oil  or  naphtha  fires  in  tanks.  Briefly — a 
white  foam  is  ejected  on  the  surface  of  the  burning  mate- 
rial from  standpipes  containing  a  chemical  solution.  A  lead- 
lined  thimble  containing  acid  is  closed  with  a  fusible  link 
which  in  burning  allows  the  thimble  to  fall  in  the  chemical 
solution  in  the  standpipe  and  the  chemical  mixture  is  forced 
out  under  pressure.  ,     ,   .  ,-, 

ESSENTIAL  OILS— Liquids  which  give  the  odor§  peeu- 
liar  to  plants  from  which  they  are  derived,  or  are  produced 
by  the  combination  of  substances  in  the  plant  which  react 
when  brought  into  the  presence  of  water.  They  have  strong 
odors,  and  are  generally  volatile.  ,,       ,:  . 

ETCHING^A  process  of  engraving  by  means,  of  hydro- 
fluoric, nitric  or  hydrochloric  acid.  If  glass,  hydrofluoric  acid 
only  can  be  used. 

ETHER — Prepared  by  distilling  alcohol  and  sulphuric 
acid  in  retorts.  Volatile,  highly  inflammable.  When  mixed 
with  oxygen  it  explodes.     Flashes  at  29  deg.  F.     .  /,r  *  .  .^, 

Petroleum  Ether — Very  light  and  volatile  petroleu;iv  pis- 
tillate. Used  as  a  solvent.  More  inflammable  than  gaso- 
line. 


EXPLOSION  149 

Sulphuric  Ether — Highly  inflammable  and  volatile.  Flashes 
at  zero  F.  Made  by  treatment  of  alcohol  with  sulphuric 
acid. 

Spirits  of  Nitrous  Ether — More  inflammable  than  alcohol. 

ETHILENE — A  colorless  gas  which  burns  with  a  luminous 
smoky  flame. 

ETHYL  ACETATE— See  Acetate  of  Ethyl. 

ETHYL  ALCOHOL— See  Grain  Alcohol. 

ETHYL  CHLORIDE— A  gas  at  ordinary  temperature. 
Stored  under  pressure  in  small  tubes  and  used  by  dentists 
for  freezing  purposes.  Not  as  hazardous  as  ether.  Volatile 
and  inflammable.     Boils  at  55  deg.  F. 

ETHYL-METHYL  KETONE— A  colorless  inflammable 
liquid.     Flash  point  30  deg.  F. 

ETHYL  NITRATE— A  thin  yellow  liquid.  Boils  at  61 
deg.  F.  Volatile  and  inflammable.  May  ignite  spontaneously 
at  194  deg.  F. 

ETHYL  OXIDE  is  ether. 

EXAMINER — One  who  examines  and  passes  on  the  risks 
submitted  by  special  agents,  or  agents  through  a  daily  re- 
port system.  He  is  an  underwriter  and  should  have  a  good 
knowledge  of  building  construction  and  hazards.  See  Coun- 
terman. 

EXCELSIOR,  if  damp,  is  subject  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion if  the  natural  sap  still  remains. 

EXCLUSION — The  standard  policy  does  not  permit  of 
excluding  any  portion  of  an  insured  building  (insured  as  a 
whole),  except  the  cost  of  foundations  and  excavations  be- 
low the  level  of  the  ground. 

EXOLIUM — A  benzine  substitute.  Flash  point  above  100 
deg.   F. 

EXPANDED  METAL — A  steel  plate  slit  in  one  operation 
and  pulled  and  enlarged  into  diamond  or  other  shape  meshes. 
Also  slotted  or  punched  steel  plates. 

EXPERIMENTS  or  experimental  works  or  manufactur- 
ing risks  should  be  declined  unless  their  objects  are  clearly 
understood.  In  case  of  failure,  the  insurance  collected  is 
often  all  that  is  back  of  the  enterprise. 

EXPLOSION — When  gas  or  vapor  is  released  so  suddenly 


150  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

as  to  cause  a  loud  noise,  an  explosion  is  said  to  occur,  as  for 
instance,  the  explosion  of  a  steam  boiler  or  a  cylinder  of 
compressed  gas.  Great  and  increasing  use  is  made  of  explo- 
sive processes  in  gas,  petrol  and  oil  engines  for  driving 
machinery  of  all  kinds.  In  these  engines,  the  material  that 
explodes  is  a  mixture  of  air  with  combustible  gas,  vapor  or 
finely  comminuted  liquid  and,  in  the  explosion,  these  are 
suddenly  converted  into  water  vapor  and  the  oxides  of  car- 
bon, which  latter  are  gases.  Although  all  these  things  are 
liable  to  explode,  none  of  them  are  called  explosives;  this 
term  is  confined  to  liquids  and  solid  substances  which  pro- 
duce much  more  violent  effects  than  exploding  gaseous  mix- 
tures, because  they  occupy  much  smaller  volumes  originally. 
(A.  Marshall.)     See  Velocity  of  Explosions. 

EXPLOSION  (Black  Tom)— New  York  Harbor,  July 
30th,  1916.  Two  explosions  resulted  from  a  fire  that  was 
started  maliciously  or  accidentally  among  freight  cars  that 
had  been  placed  on  the  terminal  tracks  of  the  Lehigh  Valley 
Railroad  at  Black  Tom  preparatory  to  a  transfer  of  their 
contents  to  barges  for  export  movement.  The  more  severe 
of  the  two  explosions  occurred  on  the  land  and  involved 
about  400,000  pounds  of  dry  trinitrotoluol  packed  in  wooden 
cases,  while  the  second  explosion  on  the  water  involved 
100,000  pounds  of  dry  picric  acid.  Black  Tom  was  occupied 
by  the  warehouses  of  the  National  Storage  Co.,  and  the 
Lehigh  Valley  Railroad  had  therein  its  office,  float  bridges 
and  tracks.  Practically  all  of  the  brick  warehouses  were 
demolished  by  the  explosion.  As  explosives  are  essential  in 
peace  as  well  as  in  war,  and  must  be  transported,  all  re- 
strictions that  promote  safety  and  are  practicable  must  be 
enforced,  in  other  words,  uniform  regulation  by  the  Fed- 
eral government  of  the  water  as  well  as  the  land  carriers  of 
dangerous  articles.  Ocean  going  ships  must  sacrifice  more 
of  their  conveniences  to  the  cause  of  safety  in  tidewater 
terminals.     (Extract  from  Bureau  of  Explosives  report.) 

EXPLOSION  INSURANCE— Policies  cover  property 
damage  due  to  explosions  of  every  name  and  nature,  except 
from  boilers  and  flywheels,  originating  within  such  apparatus, 
which  insurance  is  covered  by  casualty  companies  only. 


Explosives  i51 

Form  reads  as  follows:  On  all  buildings  of  their  manu- 
facturing plant,  including  chimney,   also  sprinkler  tank  and 

fixtures,  and  yard  hose  houses,  all  situate ,  and 

on  contents  thereof  (except  accounts,  bills,  currency,  deeds, 
evidences  of  debt,  money,  notes  or  securities)  therein  or  on 
premises  above  described,  through  explosion  (excluding 
boiler  and  flywheel  explosions  originating  within  said  ap- 
paratus), occurring  on  said  premises.  Note. — When  boiler 
or  flywheel  explosion  is  included  the  rate  is  25  per  cent, 
higher. 

The  policy  also  covers  machinery  or  stock  belonging  to 
others  which  the  assured  are  under  obligations  to  keep  in- 
sured; also  machinery  or  stock  consigned  to  them,  or  held 
in  trust,  or  on  commission,  or  sold  but  not  delivered  by  be- 
ing removed;  but  this  policy  does  not  cover  machinery  or 
stock  on  which  there  is  specific  insurance. 

This  company  shall  not  be  liable  for  any  loss  caused  by 
explosion  originating  from  any  of  the  materials  and/or  proc- 
esses incidental  to  the  business  of  the  assured.  Note. — If 
this  clause  is  eliminated,  the  rate  is  increased  according  to 
occupancy. 

It  is  warranted  by  the  assured  and  made  a  condition  of 
this  contract  that  constant  nightwatchman  service  shall  be 
maintained;  furthermore,  that  at  times  when  plant  is  not  in 
operation,  constant  day  watchman  service  shall  be  maintained 
during  the  life  of  this  policy.  Note. — Not  required  on  dwell- 
ings and  mercantile. 

Other  insurance  permitted  without  notice  until  requested. 

The  policy  does  not  cover  any  automobile  which  may  be 
within  the  premises  of  assured. 

50  per  cent,  co-insurance  mandatory.  Allowance  made  for 
80  per  cent,  co-insurance. 

EXPLOSIONS  from  static  electricity.  See  Static  orFric- 
tional  Electricity. 

EXPLOSIVE — An  explosive  is  a  solid  or  liquid  substance, 
or  mixture  of  substances,  which  is  liable,  on  the  application 
of  heat  or  a  blow  to  a  small  portion  of  the  mass,  to  be  con- 
verted in  a  very  short  interval  of  time  into  other  more  stable 
substances,    largely    or    entirely    gaseous.      A    considerable 


152  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

amount  of  heat  is  also  invariably  evolved  and  consequently 
there  is  a  flame.     (A.   Marshall.) 

EXPLOSIVE  GELATINE  is  about  90  per  cent,  nitro- 
glycerine and  10  per  cent,  gun  cotton. 

EXPLOSIVES  should  be  stored  in  a  dry,  well-ventilated 
place,  not  warmer  than  80  or  90  deg.  F.  They  should  be 
kept  under  lock  and  key,  so  that  children  or  irresponsible 
persons  cannot  have  access  to  them,  and  should  not  be  stored 
in  locality  where  hunting  or  other  shooting  may  be  done, 
unless  they  are  kept  bullet  proof.  Most  high  explosives 
freeze  at  a  temperature  between  45  and  50  deg.  F.,  and  when 
frozen  will  either  explode  imperfectly  or  not  at  all.  Low 
explosives  are  exploded  by  a  spark;  but  a  spark  will  not 
explode  high  explosives,  although  it  may  ignite  them,  and 
the  heat  and  pressure  caused  by  burning  in  a  confined  space 
may  result  in  an  explosion  after  a  time.  High  explosives 
can  only  be  properly  exploded  by  a  powerful  shock.  This 
shock  is  brought  about  in  their  use  by  exploding  a  detona- 
tor inserted  in  the  charge  of  explosives.  This  detonator  is 
either  a  blasting  cap,  which  is  exploded  by  a  spark  from 
a  fuse,  or  an  electric  fuse  (pronounced  fu-zee)  which  is  ex- 
ploded by  a  fine  wire  superheated  by  an  electric  current.  See 
Dynamite. 

EXPOSURE  (EXTERNAL)— A  condition,  structure  or 
material  which  increases  the  hazard  of  a  risk  through  burn- 
ing or  exploding.  It  defines  the  likelihood  of  a  building  be- 
coming ignited  without  its  walls.  The  exposure  depends 
upon  the  width  of  streets  or  alleys,  the  space  between  build- 
ings and  the  nature  of  the  construction  and  occupancy  of 
such  buildings.  The  hazard  may  be  reduced  by  the  use  of 
standard  wire  glass  windows,  shutters,  doors  and^  skylights 
and  outside  sprinklers.  About  one-sixth  of  the  losses  are 
caused  by  exposure  fires. 

Inspectors  should  carefully  note  all  exposures,  the  distance 
away  and  whether  outside  openings  of  risk  are  protected  by 
labelled  wire  glass  windows  or  standard  shutters.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  fire  record  of  exposure  fires  in  Greater  New 
York  as  taken  from  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers' report: 


Loss 

% 

$169,468 

.026 

148,507 

.014 

171,442 

.011 

98,781 

.014 

82,344 

.008 

52,782 

.006 

263,327 

.056' 

350,289 

.04 

738,799 

.13 

234,220 

.064 

150,697 

.062 

45,823 

.020 

EXTRACTION   PLANTS  153 

BUILDING— 
Year  Insurance 

i?ip.... $  6,362,822 

i^'ll..,. 10,811,063 

I9I2. .,. 14,742,149 

1913...., 6,862,499 

1914..  ;..,..:;. 7; 11,422,651 

1915.....  ;V..:.! 8,181,076 

CONTENTS— 

1910....... 4,684,224 

1911 8,567,924 

1912.,  ,,-^4. 5,729,133 

i913^:A^^r^. 3,624,729 

1914..;.*... 2,422,303 

1915 1,601,119 

EXPOSURE  (INTERNAL)— The  hazard  due  to  exposing 
the  property  of  one  or  more  tenants  of  a  building  to  the 
danger  of  fire  spreading  from  the  premises  of  another  ten- 
ant in  the  same  building.  In  rating,  the  internal  exposure 
is  the  most  hazardous  occupancy;  as  paper  box  making, 
painters  or  carpenters,  which  increase  the  rate  of  building 
and  of  other  less  hazardous  tenants. 

EXPRESS  OFFICES  AND  DEPOTS— Frequently  old  or 
dilapidated  buildings  of  various  construction.  Hazards  of 
unsafe  heating  and  lighting  appliances,  miscellaneous  stor- 
age, including  chemicals  and  explosives,  smoking  by  em- 
ployees, and  used  as  a  "hang-out."     See  Legal  Liability. 

EXTRACTION  PLANTS,  NAPHTHA  PROCESS— (Oil- 
seed works,  and  Refuse  Disposal  plants).  Walls  should  be 
heavy  common  brick  with  light  corrugated  iron  roof. 
Screened  openings  should  be  provided  at  floor  levels  to  carry 
off  vapor.  Lighting  by  incandescent  lamps,  marine  type 
vapor-proof  globes,  all  wiring  in  conduit  with  screw  joint 
junction  boxes  and  marine  type  fittings*;  no  switches  should 
be  permitted  in  the  building. 

The  naphtha  tank  should  be  buried  outside  the  building. 


154  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

The  Process — The  meats  from  the  oil  works  are  brought 
into  the  extracting  building  and  dropped  into  bins  having 
spouts  feeding  into  the  extractors.  These  are  cylindrical 
steel  drums  having  stirring  arms  rotated  by  shaft  and  gear- 
ing. The  bottom  of  each  contains  a  perforated  metal  false 
bottom  under  which  is  located  a  copper  pipe,  steam  heating 
coil  and  a  p.erforated  steam  jet  coil.  Charging  doors  are 
located  in  the  top  through  which  the  meats  are  fed,  and  dis- 
charge outlets  provided  in  the  sides  near  the  bottorh:  There 
are  also  pipe  connections  for  the  naphtha  at  both  top  and  bot- 
tom connecting  with  vaporizers  and  discharge  tanks,  all  of 
which  are  inclosed  vessels.  The  extractors  are  partly  filled 
with  the  meats  and  then  hot  naphtha  vapor  passed  through 
same,  passing  through  the  extractors  in  series,  the  naphtha 
vapors  forming  a  solution  with  the  oil.  The  mixture  is 
pumped  from  the  extractors  into  a  receiving  tank  and  steam 
is  turned  into  the  heating  coils  in  extractors,  the  vapor 
from  same  being  condensed  in  suitable  condensers.  Live 
steam  is  then  blown  into  extractors  to  remove  as  much  of 
the  remaining  vapor  as  possible.  This  is  also  condensed  in 
the  condensers.  The  discharge  doors  of  the  extractors  are 
then  opened,  and  the  extracted  meats  dropped  into  a  screw 
conveyor  from  whence  they  drop  into  another  conveyor  and 
are  returned  to  the  oil  mill  plant.  The  balance  of  the  opera- 
tion of  obtaining  the  oil  from  the  naphtha  and  entrained  water 
is  one  of  settlement  where  the  water  separates  through  dif- 
ference in  specific  gravity  and  is  then  drawn  off  and  dis- 
tilled, the  mixed  vapor  and  oil  being  introduced  into  a  still 
heated  by  steam,  the  naphtha  vapor  distilling  off  and  being 
condensed,  the  oil  remains.  The  process  is  hazardous.  See 
Garbage  Reduction   Plants.  Vx^ji  i  .. 

EVAPORATING— See  Crystalizing.       >T  hnn 

EVAPORATION — The  conversion  of  a  liquid  into  a  gas- 
eous state  by  action  of  heat. 

EVERITE  PRESSOLINE— A  benzine  substitute,  classed 
as  non-volatile. 

EXTRACTS— See  Flavoring  Extracts. 


iixiTittn 


FACING  in  building  construction;  a  wall  or  surface  cov- 
ering of  stone  or  similar  substance  on  the  outer  wall. 

FACTORS — A  firm  or  individual  who  acts  as  a  banker 
for,  or  a  backer  of,  another  firm  or  perspri,  advancing  money 
to  buy  goods  or  carry  on  a  business.  Usually  in  wholesale 
woolen,  piece  goods  or  dry  goods  businesses. 

FACTORY — According  to  the  Bureau  of  Fire  Prevention, 
a  factory  is  in  substance  any  mill,  workshop,  or  other  man- 
ufacturing or  business  establishment,  and  all  buildings,  sheds 
or  other  places  used  in  connection  therewith  where  one  or 
more  persons  are  employed  at  labor.  No  smoking  is  per- 
mitted in  factories  in  New  York  City. 

FAIR  GROUNDS— A  group  of  hastily  and  flimsily  con- 
structed frame  buildings  of  varied  occupancy,  such  as  shoot- 
ing galleries,  stables,  live  stock  pens,  lunch  rooms,  display 
rooms,  demonstrating  machinery,  race  tracks.  Not  consid- 
ered desirable.    Temporary  occupancy  and  on  leased  land. 

FALLING  WALL  HAZARD— Most  rating  organizations 
add  a  certain  charge  for  this  feature;  sometimes  a  percentage 
of  the  rate  of  the  exposing  risk  is  taken.  Experience  shows 
that  in  case  of  a  severe  fire  in  a  high  exposing  building  with 
a  separated  distance,  the  lower  building  so  exi^Dsed  is  liable 
to  be  destroyed  by  falling  bricks  and  debris.     See  Wind. 

FARM — At  piers,  is  the  open  space  in  front  of  the  pier 
used  for  open  storage  of  merchandise. 

FARMS  have  been  considered  as  unprofitable  insurance 
by  many  large  companies.  Hazards  include  the  use  of  gaso- 
line stoves  or  engines,  incubators  and  brooders,  feed  grind- 
ing, lighting  by  acetylene  ga^  systems,  wood  burning  fur- 
naces, evaporating  fruit  in  a  room  with  red-hot  pot  stove, 
garage,  threshing  machines,  unsafe  heating  apparatus.  Stove 
pipes  through  floors  to  heat  upper  rooms  are  quite  frequently 
found.     In  place  of  scalding  hogs  with  steam,  farmers  have 

155 


156  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

been  known  to  sprinkle  gasoline  on  the  carcass  and  set  it 
on  fire.  The  quick  flash  burns  off  the  hair  without  damaging 
the  hide. 

FARRIERS— See  Blacksmiths. 

FAT  RENDERING— Plants  buy  fat  -from  butchers  and 
deposit  same  into  steam  jacketed  (covered  top)  rendering 
kettles  with  agitators.  The  liquid  (tallow)  derived  therefrom 
is  run  to  a  covered  sump  pit  from  which  it  is  pumped  to  a 
tank  on  the  floor  above.  The  residue  or  waste  material  is 
removed  and  placed  in  hydraulic  presses  and  pressed  into 
cakes.  The  cakes  are  then  placed  in  a  power  grinder  and 
made  into  chicken  feed  or  used  as  fertilizer.  Hazardous. 
Entire  premises  usually  oil  soaked. 

FATIGUE  OF  MATERIALS— The  increased  weakness 
produced  by  frequent  bending  or  by  sustaining  heavy  loads 
for  a  long  time. 

FEATHERS  AND  FEATHER  PILLOWS— Feathers  are 
sorted  in  a  sorting  machine,  cut  up  in  a  high  speed  knife  cut- 
ter equipped  with  a  blower  system  which  draws  the  feathers 
through  a  suction  pipe  to  a  duster,  thence  to  the  storage  bins. 
Bins  are  usually  of  wire  mesh,  on  wooden  frames.  The 
lighter  feathers  are  deposited  on  the  upper  portion  of  the  bins 
and  the  heavier  feathers  fall  to  the  floor.  The  pillow  cases 
are  then  filled  and  sewed  up.  Cotton  is  sometimes  added; 
in  which  case  a  cotton  picker  may  be  used.  Considerable 
dust  about  premises.  Knife  cutter  should  have  magnets  to 
catch  metal  particles. 

FELT — A  rather  coarse  fabric  or  cloth,  made  of  fibres  of 
hair,  wool,  coarse  paper,  etc.,  by  pressure  and  not  by  weav- 
ing, treated  with  resin. 

Felt  (roofing)  is  sometimes  made  from  the  refuse  of 
flax  treated  with  resin. 

Felt  (cotton)  in  bales  is  considered  subject  to  sponta- 
neous combustion. 

FELT  PACKING — As  used  for  automobiles  and  electrical 
machinery  is  about  80  per  cent,  wool  and  20  per  cent,  cotton. 
The  hazard  of  making  the  packing  is  cutting,  stitching  and 
gluing.  These  are  usually  good  risks,  unless  the  felt  is 
manufactured  on  the  premises. 


FIBRES  157 

FENCES — If  of  slatted  wood,  especially  along  the  line  of 
steam  railroads,  are  considered  poor  risks.  Fires  have  been 
known  to  start  at  one  end  and  burn  for  miles. 

FERMENT — To  allow  moistened  organic  matter  to  un- 
dergo a  process  of  decay. 

FERMENTATION— A  chemical  action  brought  about  by 
the  action  of  micro-organisms  or  "ferments." 

FERRO-MANGANESE  is  imported  from  England.  With- 
out it  some  kinds  of  steel  cannot  be  made.  Produced  from 
ores  of  iron  and  manganese  in  high  temperature  smelting 
furnace. 

FERRO-SILICON — Compounded  of  iron  and  silicon.  Non- 
hazardous. 

FERRY  BOATS— Should  be  inspected.  Lines  are  usually 
offered  on  the  old  wooden  hulls  rather  than  on  the  modern 
type  of  steel  hull. 

FERRY  HOUSES  of  frame  construction  are  apt  to  be  a 
total  loss.  If  barnlike  construction,  they  burn  rapidly.  Haz- 
ard of  oil  rooms  and  lamp  filling,  repair  shops,  baggage 
rooms,  lunch  rooms  and  heating  apparatus. 

FERTILIZER — The  commercial  mixed  varieties  have  very 
little  fire  hazard  when  packed  and  ready  for  use. 

Fertilizer  from  fish  scrap  and  crabs.  Process — boil- 
ing in  digesters  where  all  unused  agents  are  removed,  dry- 
ing residue  and  reducing  same  to  carbon  in  high  tempera- 
ture dryer,  ground,  bagged.  Subject  to  spontaneous  combus- 
tion by  absorbing  oxygen  very  rapidly. 

FIBRES  are  divided  into  two  classes,  hard  and  soft.  Hard 
fibres,  by  virtue  of  their  construction,  do  not  absorb  water 
rapidly  when  immersed  and  do  not  heat  or  decompose  as 
rapidly  as  soft  fibres  which,  when  damaged,  must  be  picked 
apart  and  dried  at  once  if  any  salvage  is  to  be  expected. 
The  largest  losses  are  caused  by  the  collapse  of  the  building 
due  to  the  swelling  or  expansion  of  the  soft  fibre  from  the 
excessive  absorption  of  water.  Spontaneous  combustion  is 
not  attributed  as  the  cause  of  these  fires.  See  N.  F.  P.  A. 
Quarterly  (T.  E.  Sears),  October,  1913.  See  Bagging  Fac- 
tories. 


158  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING      

Hard  Fibres — Manilla,  Sisal,  Henequen,  Maguey,  Mescal, 
Istle,  Zapupe,  New  Zealand,  Mauritius,  Cabinja. 

Soft  Fibres — Hemp,  American,  Italian,  Russian  jute.  Sunn, 
Flax. 

Hemp  Fibres  of  all  kinds  are  destroyed  if  exposed  to 
a  heat  of  300  deg.  F.  Hemp  is  an  annual  plant  of  the  mul- 
berry family,  a  native  of  Asia.     Classed  as  a  soft  fibre. 

Flax  is  a  native  of  western  Asia.  Used  chiefly  in  the 
manufacture  of  linen  sewing  thread,  fishing  lines,  etc.  Classed 
as  soft  fibre. 

Sunn  Hemp  is  a  base  fibre  from  an  annual  plant  and  also 
known  as  Conkanee,  Indian,  Brown. and  Madras  hemp.  Used 
in  manufacturing  cordage.     Classed  as  soft. 

Jute  is  a  base  fibre,  growing  principally  in  India.  Used 
chiefly  in  rugs,  grain  sacks  and  binding  twine.  Classed  as 
soft. 

Caburya — A  fibre  produced  in  Costa  Rica  and  sometimes 
called  Central  American  sisal,  used  for  binder  twine.  Classed 
as  hard. 

Maguey  is  a  comparatively  new  fibre  on  the  market,  and 
is  produced  from  the  leaves  of  the  Maguey  plant,  which 
very  closely  resembles  the  henequen  of  Yucatan.  Classed  as 
hard. 

Sisal — The  true  sisal  is  taken  from  the  leaves  of  the  sisal 
plant,  a  native  of  Central  America.     Classed  as  hard. 

Henequen  is  a  native  plant  of  Mexico,  known  in  the 
trade  as  sisal.  It  belongs  to  the  same  botanical  family  as 
the  true  sisal.     Classed  as  hard. 

Manilla  Hemp — Known  as  Manilla  or  Abaca,  is  grown 
principally  in   the   Philippines.     Classed   as   hard. 

Mauritius — A  hard  fibre  obtained  in  the  island  of  Mauri- 
tius. It  is  white  in  color  and  more  flexible  than  henequen. 
Classed  as  hard. 

New  Zealand  Flax — Sometimes  called  hemp,  is  not 
at  all  like  wither  hemp  or  flax,  but  is  obtained  from  the 
leaves  of  a  native  plant  of  New  Zealand.     Classed  as  hard. 

Zapupe — A  fibre  which  grows  in  loamy  soils  and  with 
more  moisture  and  less  lime  than  seems  necessary  for  good 
results   with   henequen   or   sisal.     Classed   as   hard. 


FILM   VAULT  159 

Istle — A  fibre  grown  on  the  high,  arid  tablelands  of 
northern  Mexico.  The  fibre  is  shorter  than  the  henequen 
plant.     Classed  as  hard. 

Mescal  Maguey — Similar  to  henequen,  finer  and  softer,  pro- 
duced in  Mexico.  Used  chiefly  in  cordage  and  twine  mills 
on  the  Pacific  coast.     Classed  as  hard. 

FIBRE  WAREHOUSES  for  the  storage  of  cotton,  hemp, 
sisal,  etc.,  are  especially  designed.  For  charges  made  in 
rating,  see  New  York  Exchange  schedule.  Buildings  should 
be  low,  one-story  brick  buildings,  with  wallS  parapetted  and 
coped  and  areas  restricted,  limited  window  openings,  walls 
blank  wherever  possible.  The  height  to  which  cotton  bales 
may  be  piled  is  restricted,  and  clear  aisle  spaces  are  de- 
manded.    See  Warehouses. 

FIBREBOARD— Made  from  leather  chips,  flux,  old  rope, 
paper,  wood  pulp  and  similar  stuff.  Ground,  cooked  by 
steam  in  solution  of  alkalis,  mixed  with  binder  of  such 
material  as  glue  or  rosin,  colored,  pressed  into  sheets,  dried, 
varnished  or  stained.     See  Chemical  Fibre;  see  Compo-Board. 

FILBERTS— See  Nuts. 

FILLERINE — A  fertilizer  ingredient  made  from  iron  ox- 
ide.    Liable  to  ignite  spontaneously. 

FILLERS — Used  by  woodworkers,  are  made  of  various 
combinations  of  silax,  silver  white,  cornstarch,  whiting, 
plaster  paris,  raw  and  boiled  linseed  oil,  turpentine,  japan 
and  benzine. 

FILM  VAULT  (Test  for  Ventilation)— By  F.  J.  T.  Stew- 
art, of  N.  F.  P.  A.,  4-22-'15,  Leonia,  N.  J. 

A  structure  of  12-inch  terra  cotta  blocks  having  133  cubic 
feet  was  vented  with  a  side  opening  285  square  inches  and 
filled  with  films  on  shelves  in  and  out  of  cans  and  space 
between  racks  filled  with  loose  films  and  ignited  with  elec- 
tric spark,  1800  pounds  of  film  in  all.  The  tongue  of  flame 
which  shot  out  from  the  vault  almost  immediately  after 
the  ignition  of  the  film  projected  itself  75  feet,  continuing 
for  several  minutes,  or  until  all  the  gases  generated  within 
the  vault  were  consumed.  The  vault  was  undamaged,  prov- 
ing that  the  area   of  ventilation   provided   was  undoubtedly 


160 


INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


sufficient  to  prevent  explosion  from  the  rapid  decomposition 
of  film  under  similar  conditions.     See  Motion  Picture  Films. 

FILTER  CLOTHS  should  be  washed  directly  after  being 
used. 

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FILTERING— See  Liquors. 

FILTRATION— This  is  done  to  get  rid  of  foreign  mate- 
rial of  all  kinds,  or  to  extract  solid  matter.  The  old-fash- 
ioned way  is  by  filtering  or  straining  through  filter  cloths, 


FIRE   ALARM    SYSTEMS  i^ 

but  the  up-to-date  method  is  by  means  of  bone  black 
filters  in  a  large  steel  tank,  partly  filled  with  ground  bone 
black  (charcoal),  the  liquid  being  fed  at  the  top  and  strained 
through  the  charcoal. 

FINISH  (plain  or  hard)— A  wall  plastered  direct  without 
furring  or  no  finish  at  all.     See  Furring. 

FINISHING — As  the  name  implies,  is  the  last  process  in 
manufacturing  an  article. 

FIRE — According  to  the  Standard  dictionary,  is  heat  and 
light  emanating  from  a  body. 

Fire  is  rapid  oxidation  formed  by  heating  carbon  sub- 
stances to  a  point  where  they  combine  rapidly  with  oxygen. 
All  ignitable  substances,  such  as  wood  or  paper,  are  carbon 
substances.  Consider  the  amount  of  such  material  enter-, 
ing  into  the  construction  of  a  frame  building  and  realize 
that  a  heat  force  of  a  few  hundred  degrees  of  heat  will  over- 
balance the  fire  equilibrium,  and  the  wonder  is  that  we  have 
not  more  fires. 

FIRE — Buildings  do  not  burn  because  of  the  material  en- 
tering into  their  construction,  but  from  carelessness,  inflam- 
mable contents  or  faulty  design. 

When  certain  chemical  substances  unite  rapidly  a  large 
quantity  of  heat  is  generated  and  we  have  the  phenomenon 
which  we  call  fire.  See  Chemical  Substances;  see  Water 
Puts  Out  Fire. 

FIRE  ALARM  SYTEMS  are  various  in  character.  In 
crude  form,  consist  of  bell  ringing,  whistle  blowing,  ham- 
mering on  locomotive  tires  severed  in  the  center,  or  other 
metallic  substances.  The  modern  method  is,  open  the  door 
of  street  fire  alarm  box  and  pull  down  once  only  the  hook 
that  is  in  view,  letting  it  slide  back  to  its  original  position 
by  its  own  momentum.  This  act  causes  a  disc  in  central 
fire  station  bearing  number  of  box  pulled  to  drop,  and  a 
man  on  duty  tel'egraphs  said  number  to  fire  companies  who 
are  supposed  to  respond.  Automatic  and  pneumatic  alarms 
are  installed  by  placing  series  of  thermostats  on  ceilings 
which  operate  by  having  the  fuse  within  them  melted  by 
excessive   heat  contact,   by  which   action   alarm   is   given  at 


lA^  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

central  fire  station.  See  Combination  Red  Fire  Alarm  Box; 
also  Alarm. 

FIRE    APPLIANCES    (freezing    of,    precaution    against) 

— Unless  extreme  vigilance  is  exercised  the  very  best 
installation  of  fire  appliances  may  suffer  temporary  dis- 
ablement from  frost.  Automatic  sprinkler  systems,  hydrants 
and  all  appliances  using  water  for  fire  extinguishment  nat- 
urally require  special  care  and  attention  in  winter.  The 
following  precautions  should  be  taken;  inspections  being 
thorough,  with  nothing  taken  for  granted. 

1.  Ascertain  if  all  portions  of  buildings  are  properly 
heated  at  all  times  to  prevent  freezing  in  any  of  the  sprink- 
ler pipes,  particular  attention  being  given  to  exposed  places, 
such  as  hallways,  entries,  stair  towers,  under  sidewalks, 
show  windows,  shipping  rooms,  attics,  roof  monitors  and 
skylights. 

2.  Examine  tanks  and  all  pipe^,  fittings  and  valves,  whether 
for  steam  heating,  general  water  service,  or  fire  protection. 
See  that  none  is  frozen  or  has  been  frozen,  and  that  they  are 
all  in  operative  condition,  and  where  there  is  any  liability 
of  freezing,  provide  the  necessary  protection.  All  metal 
work  supporting  tanks  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from 
rust  and  painted,  also  tank  hoops. 

3.  Examine  carefully  and  provide  suitable  boxing  around 
any  pipe  lines  which  may  be  in  an  exposed  location  (either 
between  ground  and  first  floor,  between  buildings,  or  near 
windows,  doors,  etc.).  Make  frequent  tests  during  the  win- 
ter of  such  sprinkler  systems  in  order  to  make  sure  the, 
piping  is  not  frozen. 

4.  Ascertain  if  sprinkler  dry  valves  are  in  working  order,, 
not  leaking,  and  piping  thoroughly  drained;  if  alarm  con- 
nection and  gong  are  in  order;  if  air  pumps  can  be  depended 
on  for  the  winter. 

Note. — Do  not  overlook  low  points  on  dry  system  not 
controlled  by  main  drain.  Blow  low  points  out  occasionally 
to  free  from  condensation. 

5.  See  that  all  valves  are  open  that  should  be  open,  and 
try  water  outlets  to  ascertain  if  all  pipes  are  free  and  ready 
for  servic?. 


FIRE  APPLIANCES  163 

6.  See  that  extra  sprinl^lers  are  on  hand  in  case  of  need  to 
replace  frozen  or  melted  heads. 

7.  Be  sure  that  engineer  or  supervising  employee  is  fully 
posted  as  to  the  purpose  and  intention  of  every  valve  and 
pipe.v  , 

8.  Try  pumps  and  see  that  they  are  in  proper  working 
order. 

9.  Test  all  of  the  hydrants  and  indicator  posts,  and  see 
that  they  drain  properly. 

10.  Examine  inside  standpipes  and  connections. 

11.  Instruct  the  night  watchman  thoroughly  in  the  use 
of  all  fire  apparatus  and  the  operation  of  all  valves. 

12.  Examine  the  end  of  suction  pipe  to  see  that  leaves 
or  other  refuse  matter  have  not  clogged  up  the  holes  in  the 
strainer.  The  capacity  of  the  pump  may  be  greatly  reduced 
by  this   defect.  ■       -     -< 

13.  Take  measures  to  prevent  freezing  of  water  in  casks 
and  pails  in  cold  buildings. 

14.  Empty  and  recharge  chemical  extinguisher  to  insure 
their  being  in  perfect  working  order. 

A  thorough  examination  should  be  made  of  the  entire 
heating  system  before  putting  it  into  service.  All  heating 
pipes  should  be  carefully  brushed  down,  and,  where  the 
piping  is  located  along  walls,  any  rubbish  or  litter  which  may 
have  accumulated  should  be  removed  and  pipes  kept  free 
from  dangerous  contact  with  walls,  partitions,  etc. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  close  a  sprinkler  valve  dur- 
ing working  hours,  a  competent  man  should  be  stationed  at 
the  valves,  so  that  the  water  can  be  turned  on  immediately 
in  case  a  fire  occurs. 

When  necessary  to  make  changes  in  sprinkler  system,  ex- 
tra care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  least  possible  portion 
of  the  equipment  out  of  commission  at  one  time. 

Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  shut  water  oflF  sprinklers,  or 
in  any  way  modify  the  fire  protection,  'the  inspection  de- 
partment having  jurisdiction  should  be  first  notified.  (N*.  F, 
P.  A.) 


164  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

FIRE  BOATS  (New  York  City). 

Capacity, 
Name  Horsepower       gals,  per  min. 

Zophar  Mills   550  6,000 

New  Yorker 750  12,000 

Seth  Low 240  3,500 

A.  S.  Hewitt 450  7,000 

G.  B.  McClellan 500  7,000 

James  Duane   900  9,000 

Thomas  Willett 900  9,000 

C.  W.  Lawrence   500  7,000 

Wm.  J.  Gaynor  950  7,000 

D.  A.  Boody 240  5,000 

Launch,  Velox 250  5,000 

FIRE  CLAUSES— Those  attached  to  leases  usually  read 
as  follows: 

Form  No.  1. — It  is  understood  and  agreed  that  should  the 
premises  be  damaged  so  as  to  be  totally  destroyed,  lease  is 
to  be  cancelled.  Note. — This  form  is  acceptable  to  most 
companies. 

Form  No.  2. — It  is  understood  and  agreed'  if  the  building 
be  so  damaged  that  the  lessee  or  owner  elects  not  to  rebuild, 
then  this  lease  shall  come  to  an  end.  Note. — This  form  is 
not  acceptable  to  most  companies,  as  the  lessee  or  owner 
can  rebuild  or  cancel  the  lease  as  they  may  choose.  See 
Leasehold  Insurance. 

FIRECRACKERS  made  by  the  Chinese  consist  of  potas- 
sium nitrate  or  saltpetre,  sulphur  and  charcoal.  American 
made  firecrackers  contain  potassium  chlorate,  sulphur  and 
carbonaceous  materials. 

FIRE  DAMP  (Marsh  Gas)  occurs  in  nature  during  the 
decay  of  organic  matter.  Usually  in  coal  mines.  Inflam- 
mable, but  will  not  support  combustion.  When  mixed  with 
oxygen  it  is  very  explosive. 

FIRE  DEPARTMENT  CONNECTIONS— See  Siamese. 

FIRE  DOOR — A  door  built  under  specifications  of  the  Un- 
derwriters Laboratories,  with  approved  sill,  frame,  hangers 
and  attachments,  as  per  tests  made  at  the  laboratories,  show- 


FIRE  DRILLS  165 

ing  such  a  door  will  resist  fire  for  at  least  one  hour.  In 
approved  installations,  to  protect  an  opening  in  a  fire  wall, 
one  automatic  and  one  non-automatic  door  is  required,  but 
two  automatic  doors  are  preferred.  An  automatic  door  is  one 
designed  to  close  automatically  through  the  release  of 
weights  due  to  the  melting  of  fusible  link  as  the  result  of 
fire  heat.  A  self-closing  door  has  a  fusible  link  attachment, 
but  is  generally  kept  closed  when  not  in  use,  or,  if  open,  it 
automatically  closes  when  released;  counterweights  being 
used. 

The  melting  point  of  fusible  link  is  usually  165  deg.  F. 
The  fire-resisting  value  of  a  wood  door  encased  in  tin  de- 
pends upon  the  exclusion  of  oxygen  from  the  wood,  there- 
fore retarding  or  preventing  combustion,  and  also  upon  the 
degree  to  which  bulging  in  the  covering  can  be  prevented 
while  the  door  is  exposed  to  fire.  To  obtain  these  results, 
the  covering  must  be  so  applied  that  the  joints  between  the 
plates  will  remain  intact  and  provision  made  for  the  escape 
of  the  gases  generated  from  the  wood  core.  See  Alignum 
Fire  Door. 

FIRE  DOOR  MANUFACTURING,  whether  lock-jointed 
or  kalamein,  are  no  better  than  other  wood  and  metal  work- 
ing shops.  Frequent  fires.  See  Kalamein  Door  Manufactur- 
ing. 

FIRE  DRILLS  in  factories.  In  New  York  State  the 
law  requires  fire  drills  at  least  once  every  three  months  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  local  fire  department,  in  every  fac- 
tory employing  25  or  more  persons.  The  Fire  Prevention 
Bureau  of  New  York  City  offers  the  following  suggestions: 

Definition  of  Fire  Drills — The  orderly  vacating  of  a  build- 
ing by  its  occupants  in  the  least  possible  time  in  case  of 
emergency,  panic  or  fire.  Thjs  to  be  by  nearest  safe  means 
of  exit,  and  the  use  of  such  auxiliary  fire  appliances  as  may 
be  provided  for  the  extinguishment  or  retarding  of  fire. 

Suggestions  for  Drills: 

1.  All  employees  shall  be  formed  into  squads  or  compa- 
nies. A  monitor  or  captain  shall  be  .designated  to  take 
charge  of  each  squad  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  them 
from  the  premises;  also  a  monitor  or  captain  to  take  charge 


166  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  each  squad  designated  to  operate  auxiliary  fire  appliances 
for  the  purpose  of  retarding  or  extinguishing  the  fire. 

2.  On  receipt  of  alarm  of  fire  all  employees  shall  assem- 
ble on  their  respective  floors  at  such  point  and  in  such  man- 
ner as  shall  be  designated  by  the  monitor  or  captain  in 
charge  of  that  floor;  remove  all  work  and  portable  articles 
from  aisles;  form  in  double  files  with  arms  linked,  and  when 
ordered,  shall  march  from  the  floor  in  a  rapid  but  orderly 
manner  to  such  exit  as  may  be  designated  by  said  monitor 
or  captain. 

3.  There  shall  be  a  sufficient  number  of  employees  desig- 
nated by  the  owner,  lessee  or  tenant  of  the  premises  to  take 
charge  of  the  drill  and  to  operate  auxiliary  appliances. 

4.  Guards  shall  be  stationed  at  the  head  and  foot  of  each 
flight  of  stairs  to  preserve  order  and  keep  the  line  in  motion, 
or  retarding  same  as  may  be  necessary. 

5.  Squads  shall  be  designated  to  search  for  those  who 
have  fainted  or  fallen. 

6.  All  drills  shall  be  conducted  in  silence,  save  for  the  or- 
ders issued  by  those  in  authority. 

7.  An  employee  shall  be  designated  to  transmit  the  alarm 
for  fire  to  the  city  department  from  the  nearest  fire  alarm 
box. 

FIRE  ENGINE — An  engine,  pumping  one  full  stream  from 
a  six-inch  service  main,  will  often  reduce  the  pressure  on  the 
line  below  a  serviceable  point  for  another  effective  fire 
stream. 

FIRE  ESCAPE— See  Fire  Tower. 

FIRE  EXIT  PARTITION— A  partition  subdividing  a 
story  to  restrict  the  spread  of  fire,  and  sufficiently  stable  to 
provide  an  area  of  refuge  for  the  exit  of  the  occupants 
thereof.     See  Horizontal  Exit. 

FIRE  EXTINGUISHERS— A  siphon  of  soda  in  the  home 
can  be  used  as  a  fire  extinguisher.  The  carbonic  acid  gas 
in  the  water  helps  to  extinguish  the  flames.  See  Extinguish- 
ers; also  Fire  Appliances. 

FIRE  HEAT  from  wood  is  estimated  to  be  from  800  to 
1,400  deg.  P.;  from  coal,  2,200  deg.  P.;  charcoal,  2,400  deg.  F. 

FIRE  HOSE  (care  of) — Aside  from  the  generail  care  neces- 


FIRE   INSURANCE    AS    COLLATERAL  Ifi? 

sary  to  observe  when  the  hose  is  not  in  actual  use,  it  must  be 
thoroughly  overhauled  after  a  fire  to  detect  such  defects  as 
scorching,  cracking,  cuts  due  to  dragging  hose  over  cornices 
or  rough  edges,  and  then  neatly  placed  on  racks.  See  Fric- 
tion Loss. 

FIRE  INSURANCE  will  only  cover  a  small  part  of  your 
loss  if  you  have  a  fire.  Insurance  is  a  partial  repayment, 
not  a  guarantee  against  fire  occurring.  It  is  indemnity  against 
loss  or  damage  by  fire. 

FIRE  INSURANCE  AS  COLLATERAL  (Fireman's  Fund 
Record) — The  importance  of  fire  insurance  as  collateral  se- 
curity can  be  understood  when  we  are  told  that  97  per  cent, 
of  the  commerce  of  the  world  is  carried  on  by  paper  ex- 
change, and  3  per  cent,  of  it  for  cash. 

Fire  insurance  is  the  support  of  commerce,  the  endorser, 
the  collateral  security  for  the  protection  of  credit. 

A  cargo  of  Pacific  Coast  salmon,  wheat,  fruit,  wine  or 
other  products,  shipped  to  Europe,  is  balanced  by  a  cargo 
of  manufactured  articles  shipped  from  Europe  to  China  or 
Japan,  and  the  latter  shipment  is  balanced  by  tea  and  silk 
shipped  from  China  or  Japan  to  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles, 
Portland  or  Seattle,  the  coast  products  being  thus  paid  for  by 
the  tea  and  silk.  This  is  credit,  no  cash  being  used,  but  the 
credit  being  guaranteed  by  fire  and  marine  insurance  poli- 
cies, makes  the  transaction  cash,  as  a  loss  of  either  cargo 
would  be  made  good  by  the  insurance. 

Fire  insurance  as  a  collateral  is  the  basis  for  credit.  It 
enables  the  wholesale  merchant  to  extend  credit  to  the  re- 
liable trader,  to  the  extent  of  five  times  the  trader's  capital, 
at  the  same  prices  as  for  cash  in  sixty  days;  for  if  the  trader 
sells  the  goods,  he  will  pay  his  bills,  and  if  his  goods  are 
destroyed  or  lost,  his  insurance  collateral  will  pay  his  debts. 
In  either  case  he  is  practically  a  cash  man,  gets  his  goods  at 
cash  price,  and  can  sell  to  the  consumer  at  less  than  if  he 
bought  at  credit  prices  without  collateral.  The  reduced  prices 
at  which  the  trader  gets  his  goods  (the  sellers  taking  no 
risk)  also  pays  for  his  insurance  over  and  over  again.  Fur- 
thermore, as  the  fire  insurance  policy  covers  all  stock  that 
goes   into   the   store   during  the   term   of   the   policy,   $5,000 


168  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

insurance  on  a  $7,000  stock  may  in  the  course  of  a  year 
have  under  its  protection  $30,000  or  $40,000  worth  of  mer- 
chandise, thus  reducing  the  cost  of  his  insurance  by  dis- 
tributing its  protection  over  large  values. 

Fire  insurance  as  collateral  security  also  reduces  interest 
rates  and  increases  the  purchasing  power  of  capital. 

The  owner  of  a  lot  who  wants  to  build  a  house  can  hire  a 
greater  sum  of  money  from  the  bank  on  the  property  and 
at  a  lower  rate  of  interest,  when  his  mortgage  debt  is  se- 
cured by  insurance  on  the  building,  than  he  could  without 
insurance.  A  warehouse  receipt  for  wheat,  fruit,  wine  or 
other  produce,  backed  by  an  insurance  policy,  will,  as  col- 
lateral, command  money  at  a  much  less  rate,  including  the 
premium  paid,  than  a  mortgage  on  real  estate  will  in  the 
same  locality. 

A  buyer  with  a  capital  of  $20,000  invested  in  wheat  or 
other  produce  in  a  warehouse  can  insure  that  produce  for 
95  per  cent,  of  its  value;  then,  with  the  warehouse  receipt, 
and  the  insurance  policy  as  collateral,  he  can  get  $19,000 
from  the  bank,  and  with  this  $19,000  go  into  the  market,  in- 
vest that  sum  in  more  produce,  and,  repeating  the  opera- 
tion, compete  in  the  market  for  $150,000  or  $200,000  worth 
of  produce  on  an  original  capital  of  $20,000. 

The  exporter  who  places  a  cargo  of  wheat,  fruit,  wine  or 
salmon  on  a  ship  insures  it  under  a  marine  policy,  with  which 
and  the  bill  of  lading  he  commands  money  immediately,  at 
the  European  rate  of  interest,  to  buy  another  cargo;  and  by 
repeating  the  operation  not  only  increases  the  purchasing 
power  of  his  capital,  but  he  has  the  advantage  of  cheap 
money  to  operate  on.  This  enables  the  producer  to  get  a 
better  price  than  if  he  had  to  depend  on  the  competition  of 
local  capital,  and  emphasizes  the  benefit  of  insurance  as  col- 
lateral. 

Fire  insurance  as  collateral  also  protects  invested  capital 
from  unnecessary  disturbance. 

Millionaire  capitalists  who  manage  large  mining,  manufac- 
turing or  other  enterprises  in  which  stockholders  are  inter- 
ested, seek  the  protection  of  fire  insurance  for  collateral  se- 
curity, as  it  enables  them  to  obtain  cash  for  immediate  repair 


I^IRE  LOSS  169 

of  any  fire  damage  to  the  property,  without  using  funds 
that  can  be  applied  to  better  advantage  by  continuing  unin- 
terrupted dividends  to  interested  people,  many  of  whom  need 
the  money. 

This  idea  of  protecting  investments  by  the  man  of  mil- 
lions should  be  applied  by  the  man  of  hundreds. 

The  rebuilding  of  San  Francisco  following  the  earthquake 
and  fire  is  the  best  evidence  of  the  value  of  fire  insurance  as 
collateral  security  for  investments  and  loans  that  the  busi- 
ness world  ever  experienced.  Without  the  $180,000,000  paid 
by  the  fire  insurance  companies  as  indorsers  (under  their  poli- 
cies) and  the  credit  obtained  for  as  many  more  millions 
based  upon  the  collateral  security  of  their  policies,  San  Fran- 
cisco, instead  of  now  being  a  city  of  skyscrapers,  would  be  a 
city  of  shanties  and  ash-heaps. 

It  is  asserted  by  economists  who  have  studied  the  value 
of  insurance  as  collateral  securiljy  that  the  saving  in  inter- 
est rates  to  the  borrower,  and  on  the  cost  of  goods  to  the 
consumer,  amounts  to  a  much  greater  sum  than  the  total 
premiums  paid  by  the  insured,  and  that  the  loss  collected  is 
all   clear  profit. —  (The   Weekly   Underwriter.) 

FIRE  INSURANCE  TECHNOLOGY  is  the  art  of  know- 
ing the  special  features  of  a  risk  and  how  to  inspect  the 
premises. 

FIRE  LOSS  (Extract  from  Lecture  by  W.  N.  Bament)— 
The  fire  insurance  contract  is  based  on  a  contingency,  and 
rates  are  made  to  cover  the  contingency,  and  any  omission 
of  that  which  good  faith  demands  in  connection  with  it  is 
sufficient  to  warrant  a  court  in  declaring  the  contract  void. 
In  these  days,  however,  no  underwriter  thinks  of  contesting 
a  claim  that  is  due  even  to  pure  negligence.  The  irresponsi- 
ble act  of  an  insane  person  is  no  bar  to  recovery  under  a  fire 
insurance  policy,  neither  is  the  intentional  destruction  of  the 
wife's  property  by  the  husband,  or  the  opposite.  Claims  for 
loss  due  to  property  falling  in  a  stove  are  not  recoverable,  al- 
though loss  due  to  curtains  blowing  into  a  gas  jet  flame  must 
be  paid  for.  Both  are  friendly  fires,  the  difference  being 
that  in  the  case  of  the  curtain  a  new  and  hostile  fire  be- 
gins at  the  time  of  contact.     Spontaneous  combustion,  un- 


170  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

til  it  becomes  so  rapid  as  to  produce  a  flame  or  glow,  cannot 
be  classed  as  fire,  otherwise  many  kinds  of  decomposition, 
which  is  in  fact  combustion,  would  have  to  be  paid  for. 
Damage  due  to  smoking  lamps  is  likewise  not  recoverable, 
else  thousands  of  homes  would  have  to  be  redecorated  at 
the  expense  of  the  companies. 

Damage  to  steam  boilers,  due  to  lack  of  water  in  the 
boiler,  is  not  covered,  although  in  the  case  of  a  fire  being 
kindled  under  a  dry  boiler  by  a  stranger  a  judgment  was 
rendered  in  favor  of  the  insured.  A  Wisconsin  case  fur- 
nishes the  only  departure  from  the  harmony  of  opinion,  and 
it  declared  that  violent  and  unusual  heat  in  a  furnace  loses 
its  friendly  nature  and  judgment  was  awarded  against  the 
insurer. 

Proximate  cause  is  sufficient.  A  flywheel  explosion  due 
to  a  short  circuit  caused  in  a  remote  part  of  the  building  by 
fire  attacking  a  cable  of  insulated  wires  was  held  a  loss  by 
fire  under  the  Massachusetts  standard  policy.  Damage  done 
by  firemen  under  the  mistaken  impression  that  a  fire  exists 
is  not  covered.  The  preponderance  of  court  opinion  is  that 
explosions  occurring  during  a  fire  are  incidents  of  the  fire 
and  their  damage  is  covered. 

The  concussion  of  air  which  destroys  adjacent  property 
upon  an  explosion  is  held  to  be  an  intervening  cause  such  as 
will  defeat  recovery.  Damage  from  explosion  due  to  light- 
ning striking  a  powder  magazine  has  been  held  to  be  not 
covered,  while  payment  of  damage  to  adjoiningj)roperty  done 
by  the  falling  wall  of  a  ruin  blown  over  by  a  high  wind 
seven  days  after  the  fire  was  enforced  upon  the  company. 
Where  a  city  ordinance  prevents  the  repair  of  a  building 
damaged  more  than  a  certain  percentage  the  insurer  is 
liable  for  the  value  of  the  property  less  any  salvage.  The  in- 
surer is  also  liable  for  extra  expense  required  by  city  ordi* 
nance  in  the  making  of  repairs  to  a  partially  burned  building. 

FIRE  LOSSES  IN  UNITED  STATES,  1875-1916 
(from  The  Insurance  Year  Book) — 

Aggregate 
Year                     Aggregate  Fire  Loss       Insurance  Loss 
1875 $78,102,285  $39,327,400 


FIRE   LOSS  TABLES  171 

1876 64,630,600  34,374,500 

1877 68,265,800  37,398,900 

1878 64,315,900  36,575,900 

1879 77,703,700  44,464,700 

1880 74,643,400  42,525,000 

1881 81,280,900  44,641,900 

1882 84,505,024  48,875,131 

1883 100,149,228  54,808,664 

1884 110,008,611  60,679,818 

1885... 102,818,796  57,430,709 

1886 104,924,750  60,506,564  ' 

1887 120,283,055  69,659,508 

1888 1 10,885,665  63,965,724 

1889 123,046,833  73,679,465 

1890 108,993,792   *  65,015,465 

1891 143,764,967  90,576,918 

1892 151,516,098  93,511,936 

1893 167,544,370  105,994,577 

1894 140,006,484  89,574,699 

1895 142,110,233  84,688,030 

1896 118,737,420  73,903,800 

1897 116,354,575  66,722,145 

1898 130,593,905  73,796,080 

1899 153,597,830  92,683,715 

1900 160,929,805  95,403,650 

1901 165,817,810  100,798,645 

1902 161,488,355  94,775,045 

(Estimated  by  publishers 
of  The  Insurance  Year  Book) 

1903 145,302,155  104,000,000 

(From  Nat'l.  Board  Tables) 

1904 229,198,050  144,000,000 

1905 165,221,650  116,000,000 

1906 518,611,800  292,000,000 

1907 215,084,709  127,000,000 

1908 217,885,850     .  157,000,000 

1909 188,705,150  143,000,000 

1910... 214,003,300  175,000,000 

(Continued  on  page  174) 


Vf^^?^f;>J^J. 


m})}j?);;^^j^^>???x-^ 


Per  Capita  Fire  Loss  Figures  Analyzed. 

Strictly    Preventable    (Black),    Partly    Preventable    (Shaded), 

and  Unknown   (White). 

Per  Capita 
States  Fire  Loss 

Rhode  Island  $3.71 

New  Hampshire  2.54 

California  2.57 

Massachusetts  2.60 

Nevada  2.62 

Connecticut  2.63 

Florida  2.72 

Delaware  2.76 

New  Jersey  3.52 

Montana  3.37 

Georgia  3.18 

Maine  2.97 

Texas  2.95 

Washington  2.42 

New  York  2.41 

Illinois  2.30 

Iowa  2.28   • 

Minnesota  2.26 

Oregon  2.24 

North  Dakota  2.23 

Nebraska  2.23 

Michigan  2.15 

Tennessee  2.06 

Maryland  2.02 

Wisconsin  ,  1.83 

Arizona  1.79 

Idaho  1.75 

Kansas  1.70 

Missouri  1.65 

Louisiana  1.62 

Pennsylvania  1.58 

Indiana  1.55 

South  Dakota  1.54 

Virginia  1.52 

Ohio  1.48 

Oklahoma  1.48 

Arkansas  1.42 

Alabama  1.39 

Vermont  1.37 

Kentucky  1.35 

South  Carolina  1.34 

Mississippi  1.32 

West   Virginia  1.22 

North  Carolina  1.13 

DIst.  of  Columbia  1.05 

Wyoming  1.04 

Colorado  1.03 

Utah  .95 

New  Mexico  .84 


f /'/'^/'/'/'^/'/'x'/i 


The  1916  Fire 
Loss  figures  here 
shown  are  in  dol- 
lars and  cents. 
They  represent 
more  than  97%  of 
the  total  fires  in 
the  United  States. 
The  figures  for 
several  states 
would  be  some- 
what increased  if 
full  statistics  were 
available.  —  From 
"  S  a  f  e  g  uarding 
America  Against 
Fire,"  Nat.  Board 
of  Fire  Under- 
writers. 


i>MITIJIW>J 


J  'R^T'^ 


France  ^  0.49 


Ett^and  SO  35 

Germany  *0  28 

Italy  <y  Austria  $0  23 

Switzerlatid  f015 


Hollattd  I^O.U 

How  the  Fire  Losses 
Compai'd 

(Year  of  1916) 


174  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

1911 217,004,575  190,000,000 

1912 206,438,900  194,000,000 

1913 203,763,550  196,000,000 

1914 221,439,350  210,000,000 

1915 172,063,200  167,500,000 

1916 214,530,995  195,000,000 

1917 250,753,640  230,000,000 

• 

Fire  Loss  Per  Capita  in  United  States 

1915  $1.71 

1916  2.10 

FIRE  LOSSES  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES 
Fire  Losses  Per  Capita  Year  1911 

United   States    $2.62 

England    ,     .53 

France    .81 

Germany 21 

Ireland   58 

Italy 31 

Russia 1.17 

FIRE  LOSSES  (per  capita)  1916— Boston  seems  to  enjoy 
the  unfortunate  distinction  of  topping  nearly  all  the  cities 
of  the.  world  in  annual  fire  losses.  For  1916  its  loss  was 
$3.30  for  every  man,  woman  and  child  in  the  city.  Taking 
all  cities  of  the  country  of  about  400,000  population  and  up- 
ward, the  per  capita  losses  figure  as  follows:  New  York 
City,  $1.56;  Bronx  and  Richmond,  $1.59;  Brooklyn  and 
Queens,  $1.52;  Washington,  $1.06;  Chicago,  $2.05;  Los  An- 
geles, $1.11;  New  Orleans,  $1.13;  Baltimore,  $1.05;  Detroit, 
$2.24;  Minneapolis,  $3.84;  Kansas  City,  %2.76)  St.  Louis,  $2.03; 
Newark,  $2.70;  Buffalo,  $2.27;  Cincinnati,  $1.51;  Cleveland, 
$1.13;  Philadelphia,  $1.63;  Seattle,  $1.96;  Milwaukee,  $2.41, 
and  Pittsburgh,  $2.98. 

Of  these  municipalities,  it  will  be  noted,  Minneapolis  is  the 
only  one  that  exceeds  Boston's  startling  record.  Moreover, 
the  average  per  capita  fire  loss  of  329  cities  in  the  United 
States  is  but  $2.20,  which  is  $1.10  below  that  of  the  Hub. 


/  LARGE    FIRES    IN    U.    S.    SINCE    1897  175 

United  States  Geological  Survey  statistics  state  that: 

1.  During  year  1907  fire  caused  the  death  of  1,449  persons 
and  the  injury  of  5,654. 

2.  Each  year  $250,000,000  of  tangible  values  are  wasted  by 
fire. 

3.  Each  minute  of  each  day  of  the  year  ^ees  $500  in  value 
rising  in  flame  and  smoke,  leaving  an  ash-pile  as  its  pyre. 

4.  Each  year  the  fire  loss  equals  $2.65  per  capita  of  our 
95,000,000  population. 

5.  Each  year  this  needless  loss  equals  a  tax  of  $13.00  per 
each  family  of  five  of  our  population. 

6.  Each  year  shows  a  record  of  forty  fires  to  each  10,000 
of  our  population. 

FIRES,  LARGE,  IN  UNITED   STATES   SINCE   1897— 
From  The  Insurance  Year  Book. 

Newport  News,  Va.. $2,000,000  1897 

Pittsburgh,    Pa.. 2,000,000  1897 

Pittsburgh,    Pa 2,000,000  1898 

San  Francisco,   Cal 2,000,000  1898 

Victor,  Col 2,000,000  1899 

Philadelphia,  Pa 3,000,000  1899 

Hoboken,   N.  J 5,500,000  1900 

Bayonne,    N.   J 4,500,000  1900 

•       Jacksonville,    Fla 11,000,000  1901 

Waterbury,  Conn 3,000,000  1902 

Paterson,   N.  J.. 7,000,000  1902 

Cincinnati,    Ohio 2,000,000  1903 

Baltimore,    Md 50,000,000              •  1904 

Rochester,    N.    Y 3,000,000  1904      r 

New  Orleans,   La 3,200,000  1905 

San  Francisco,  Cal 350,000,000  1906 

New  York,  N.  Xt •  t-t  •  •>  ••  •  -  2,500,000  1908 

Chelsea,    Mass.-.,1..(V.'^'.-V.. .,..'-  v:12,000,000  1908 

.     Chisholm,   Minn.,  Etc.'. ......  5,000,000  1908 

Wallace,   Idaho,   Etc 4,500,000  1910 

Cedar  Spur,  Mont.,  Etc 6,000,000  1910 

Minnesota 3,500,000  1910 


176  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Albany,   N.  Y 5,500,000  1911 

Bangor,  Me 3,500,000  1911 

Coney   Island    (Dreamland)..     2,500,000  1911 

New  York   3,000,000  1912 

Houston,    Texas 4,500,000  1912 

Hamilton,    Ohio 2,000,000  1913 

Hot  Springs,  Ark 2,250,000  1913 

Salem,   Mass 14,000,000  1914 

Newport,  Va 2,000,000  1915 

Chicago,   111 2,000,000  1915 

Brooklyn,   N.   Y 2,000,000  1916 

Fall  River,  Mass 2,000,000  1916 

Paris,  Texas 5,000,000  1916 

Augusta,    Ga 5,000,000  1916 

Canton, '  Md 2,000,000  1916 

Marshfield,  Ore 2,100,000  1916 

Black  Tom  Is.,  Jersey  City...    11,000,000  1916 

Swissvale,  Pa 4,000,000  1917 

Pittsburgh,  Pa , 2,000,000  1917 

Kingsland,  N.  J 12,000,000  1917 

Atlanta,  Ga 5,000,000  1917 

Drumwright,  Okla 2,000,000  1917 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 2,000,000  1917 

Baltimore,  Md 3,500,000  1917 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 2,000,000  1917 

Jersey  City,  N.  J 2,000,000  1918 

Kansas  City,  Mo 3,000,000  1918 

North  St.  Louis,  Mo 2,500,000  1918 

Noxen,  Pa 2,250,000  1918 

FIRES  IN  FRANCE— See  Responsibility  for  Fires. 

FIRE  IN  PERSON'S  CLOTHING— Throw  the  person 
down  and,  commencing  at  the  head,  wrap  a  rug,  mat  or  any 
woolen  cover  around  him  and  roll  him  on  floor.     A  woman 

attempting  to  extinguish  such  a  fire  should  be  careful  that 
her  own  clothing  does  not  become  ignited,  and  should  hold 

the  covering  in  front  of  her,  and  beginning  at  the  person's 
head,  throw  the  covering  toward  his  feet.  If  alone,  lie  on 
floor  and  roll  to  nearest  rug  and  wrap  yourself  in.     Do  not 


PIRE   iPAlLS  Iff 

run  to  an  open  window,  door  or  to  the  street,  as  this  will  fan 
the  flames. 

FIRES  AT  SEA— One  of  the  most  promising  of  the  new 
methods  of  fighting  fire  on  shipboard  at  sea  is  to  fight  the 
fire  with  fire.  By  this  system  the  hot  gases  that  come  from 
the  boiler  flues  and  ordinarily  go  up  the  smokestack  are  used 
to  smother  a  fire. 

A  vessel  is  equipped  with  great  pipes  running  from  the 
boiler  room  to  all  parta  of  the  ship,  and  at  any  time  the  flue 
gases  can  be  switched  from  the  smokestack  to  these  pipes. 
The  pipes  would  pour  these  flue  gases  into  the  hold  or  the 
sections  of  the  ship  where  the  fire  was  raging  and  smother  it. 

Flue  Gas  contains  only  9  per  cent,  of  oxygen,  and  15  per 
cent,  of  oxygen  is  required  to  support  fire.  Consequently  if 
great  quantities  of  flue  gas  are  poured  into  the  burning  hold 
the  oxygen  there  will  soon  be  reduced  to  a  point  where  com- 
bustion cannot  continue  and  the  fire  must  die  out.  Automatic 
sprinkler  protection  is  the  best  known  method  of  extinguish- 
ing fires  and  is  particularly  applicable  to  ships.  There  are 
numerous  small  compartments  on  all  ships  where  a  fire  can 
smoulder  a  long  time  before  discovery.  A  sprinkler  in  one 
of  these  rooms  would  insure  rapid  extinguishment. 

FIRE  PAILS  are  the  simplest,  handiest  and  best  extin- 
guisher for  incipient  fires.  One  standard  fire  pail  is  required 
for  each  500  square  feet  of  floor  area.  Pails  to  be  galvanized, 
painted  red  with  word  'Tire,*'  of  10  or  12  quarts*  capacity. 
So  that  they  may  be  easily  accessible,  pails  are  to  be  placed 
not  less  than  two  feet  from  the  floor  to  the  bottom  of  pail, 
nor  more  than  five  feet  from  floor  to  top  of  pail.  In  fire  insur- 
ance ratings,  one  fire  extinguisher  is  considered  equal  to  six 
pails;  but  one-half  of  the  equipment  must  be  pails.  Fire 
bucket  tanks  holding  six  pails  are  approved.  One-half  the  re- 
quired number  of  pails  in  grease  or  oil  risks  to  be  filled  with 
sand.  On  piers,  or  roofs  of  sheds  or  buildings,  oak  casks  or 
tanks  of  50  gallons  capacity,  each  having  three  fire  pails, 
casks  staggered  50  feet  apart,  are  accepted.  Hasty  filling  of 
fire  pails  while  the  inspector  is  waiting  in  'the  ofiice  for  the 
manager  may  be  detected  by  finding  spilled  water  on  floor 
under  them,  swinging  pails,  or  water  in  agitation.    This  trick 


178  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

is  often  resorted  to.  See  Pails  and  Casks;  also  see  Stag- 
gered. 

FIREPLACES— Open  fireplaces  should  be  provided  with 
screens  to  keep  sparks  in  and  to  prevent  children's  clothing 
coming  in  contact  w^ith  the  fire,  and  to  keep  sparks  froni 
flying  into  the  rooms.  Most  fires  are  caused  by  radiating 
heat  to  combustible  floors  or  mantels.  A  safe  fireplace  will 
have  a  fireproof  hearth  of  an  area  and  thickness  to  prevent 
radiated  heat  igniting  the  floor,  and  the  mantel  should  be  of 
incombustible  material.  Ornamental  hearths  have  been  re- 
sponsible for  many  fires.  They  are  mostly  made  of  flat  tiling 
or  cement  laid  on  the  floor  boards  in  a  thin  layer.  Tenants, 
unaware  of  the  danger,  frequently  build  fires  on  them  with 
disastrous  results. 

FIRE  PREVENTION  OBSERVATIONS  of  Fire  Chief 
Kenlon  of  New  York  on  the  needs  of  fire  prevention.  A  few 
of  the  great  needs  are:  "  ,      ' 

"1.  Fire  Walls  in  Factories.  I  would  have  every  lott  and 
factory  building  with  more  than  5,000  square  feet  of  floor 
capacity  to  a  floor  divided  by  fire  walls.  If  light  is  needed, 
and  a  wall  would  shut  it  out,  let  the  wall  in  part — say  40  per 
cent  of  it — be  built  of  polished  wired  glass.  This  material 
would  withstand  an  intense  heat  for  thirty  minutes  or  more. 
Doors  through  the  fire  wall,  built  of  thoroughly  fireproof 
material,  would  allow  the  persons  on  one  side  to  flee  for 
safety  past  the  fire  wall  if  fire  should  break  out  in  their  por- 
tion of  the  room. 

"2.  Fire  Escapes  in  Enclosed  Towers.  There  is  absolutely 
no  doubt  that  the  present  form  of  fire  escape  is  doomed  to 
go  as  inadequate.  The  inclosed  staircase  in  a  fireproof  tower, 
built  outside  the  building,  is  the  one  sensible  solution  of  the 
problem.  Entrance  is  had  in  this  type  of  fire  escape  only 
through  doors  reached  by  balconies  and  not  directly  from  the 
building  where  a  fire  may  be  raging.  Thus  the  fire  tower  is 
not  only  fireproof,  but  is  smoke-proof  as  well. 

"3.  Automatic  Sprinklers  in  All  Department  Stores,  Stor- 
age Warehouses  and  Manufacturing  Lofts.  The  sprinkler  has 
already  proved  its  efficiency,  and  its  installation  should  be 
made  compulsory. 


FIREPROOF  179 

"4.     A  Sane  Alteration  of  the  Law  Regarding  Exits.     At 

present  staircases  are  required  to  be  the  same  width  whether 
the  building  be  four  or  forty  stories  high.  Owners  should  be 
compelled  to  widen  the  staircase  in  large  buildings  toward 
the  bottom,  following  a  carefully  graduated  scale,  so  that  the 
people  rushing  down  from  above  would  not  jam  into  people 
from  below  above  the  maximum  capacity  of  the  staircase. 
With  the  adjustment  of  staircases  to  the  fire  needs  should 
come  the  ^certificate  of  occupancy,'  under  which  an  owner 
would  be  prevented  from  changing  the  character  of  his  build- 
ing after  having  been  inspected  and  approved — so  that  an 
inspection  for  mere  storage  purposes  should  not  cover  the 
putting  of  hundreds  of  girls  to  work  in  factories  on  upper 
floors. 

"5.  A  Rigid  EnforcemeTit  of  the  Regulations  Requiring 
the  Removal  of  Rubbish.  A  good  janitor  and  an  efficient  en- 
gineer in  a  factory  building  are  the  firemen's  best  friends.  I 
would  like  to  see  an  incinerator  in  the  basement  of  every 
large  building,  in  which  rubbish  could  be  thrown  as  soon  as 
it  reaches  the  cellar.  This  would  insure  its  destruction.  In 
the  absence  of  the  incinerator,  the  next  best  substitute  is  a 
receptacle  for  rubbish  of  fireproof  material  which  would  pre- 
vent its  accumulation  in  a  condition  to  serve  as  fire  food. 

"6.  The  Abolition  of  Heavy  Fireproof  Roofs.  The  fire- 
proof roof  of  slate  and  metal  is  itself  a  menace,  as  it  is  espe- 
cially liable  to  crash  through  the  building,  carrying  floor  after 
floor  with  it  to  the  ground.  The  heavy  roof  of  the  Equitable 
Building  is  what  did  the  damage  and  smashed  in  the  floors 
that  killed  Fire  Chief  Walsh.  Before  that  fire  I  would  not 
have  thought  to  include  the  making  of  lighter  roofs  as  a  great 
necessity." 

FIREPROOF— The  term  used 'fe^^tiress  a  building  built 
of  fire-resisting  material,  such  as  steel  or  concrete,  which  of 
themselves  are  not  combustible  and  will  withstand  the  rav- 
ages of  an  ordinary  fire  without  rupture  or  impairment  for 
at  least  four  hours.  The  term  "fireproof"  is  a  popular  ex- 
pression used  to  denote  "fire-resistive."  See  Unprotected 
Iron. 

FIREPROOF    APARTMENT    HOUSE     (Alwyn     Court 


}66  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITtKC 

Building) — Fire,  March  4,  1910.  Ordinary  glass  windows  al- 
lowed the  fire  to  leap  from  floor  to  floor  on  the  outside  of 
building.  Wired  glass  windows  in  standard  sash  and  frame 
would  have  prevented  this. 

FIREPROOF    BUILDINGS    (Weekly    Underwriter)— "A 

so-called  fireproof  building  bears  about  the  same  relation  to 
its  contents  that  a  furnace  or  stove  does  to  the  material  put 
into  it  to  burn.  As  a  rule  the  fireproof  building  will  pre- 
vent the  spread  of  fire  to  other  buildings  just  as  a  fire  will 
not  spread  from  one  stove  to  another  placed  near  it;  but  the 
contents  of  a  fireproof  building  will  be  consumed  once  the 
fire  is  well  under  way  just  as  thoroughly  as  the  coal  and  wood 
in  the  stove.  Further,  the  heat  will  be  retained  in  the  fire- 
proof building  and  human  beings,  if  they  fail  to  get  out 
quickly,  will  be  killed.  This  is  particularly  true  of  a  building 
filled  with  merchandise,  and  to  a  very  much  less  extent  to 
an  office  building.  If  there  is  only  the  ordinary  office  fur- 
niture in  an  office  building,  the  danger  to  life  is  not  great; 
but  if  there  is  a  large  amount  of  inflammable  material,  such 
as  partitions,  office  records,  etc.,  stored  in  some  dark  floor, 
you  would  not  want  to  be  in  the  upper  part  of  some  tall 
structure  where  the  stairs  and  elevators  are  in  open  shafts 
and  carry  the  heat  chimney-like  to  the  upper  floors." 

A  building  constructed  entirely  of  fire  and  heat-resistive 
material  is  fireproof  as  long  as  it  contains  no  inflammables. 
The  contents  of  such  a  building  are  more  liable  to  destruc- 
tion than  the  same  material  in  a  frame  building.  Under- 
writers frequently  overestimate  the  amount  of  salvage  to  be 
derived  from  a  stock  on  the  floor  of  a  fireproof  building  and. 
frequently  have  an  "over-line"  when  fire  comes.  See  Demo- 
lition of  Fireproof  Building. 

FIREPROOF  CONSTRUCTION,  according  to  insurance 
requirements.  A  building  shall  be  deemed  fireproof  con- 
struction if  it  conforms  to  the  following  requirements:  All 
the  walls  constructed  of  brick,  stone,  concrete  or  terra  cotta; 
all  floors  and  roofs  of  brick,  terra  cotta  or  reinforced  con- 
crete placed  between  steel  or  reinforced  concrete  beams  and 
girders;  all  the  steel  entering  into  the  structural  parts  en- 
cased in  at  least  two  inches  of  fireproof  niaterial,  excepting 


FIRE    PUMPS  181 

the  wall  columns,  which  must  be  incased  in  at  least  eight 
inches  of  masonry  on  the  outside  and  four  inches  on  the  in- 
side; all  stairs,  elevators,  public  hallways,  corridors  or  other 
shafts  inclosed  in  fireproof  partitions  or  enclosures;  all 
doors  of  fireproof  design  and  labelled;  all  stairways,  land- 
ings, hallways  and  other  surfaces  of  incombustible  material; 
no  woodwork  or  other  combustible  material  used  in  any  par- 
tition, furring,  ceiling  or  floor  (the  latter  may  be  wood  if 
laid  on  sleepers  without  air  space)  and  all  doors  and  sash 
trim  and  other  interior  finish  of  incombustible  material;  all 
windows  (side  walls  and  in  courts),  shall  be  wired  glass  in 
labelled  sash  and  frame.  Note. — In  factories  the  floors  should 
be  inclined  and  cement  covered  with  scuppers  to  carry  oflF 
water.     See  Wood  Finish  and  Trim. 

FIREPROOF  ROOFS— See  Fire  Prevention. 

FIREPROOFING  CHILDREN'S  CLOTHING— Dissolve 
25  cents  worth  of  ammonium  phosphate  in  one  gallon  of  cold 
water  for  five  minutes.  If  an  ounce  or  two  of  alum  is  added 
to  the  last  water  in  which  the  clothing  is  washed,  they  will 
be  less  inflammable.     See  Fire  in  Person's  Clothing. 

FIREPROOFING  COTTON  GOODS— Use  sodium  stan- 
nate  and  ammonia  sulphate. 

FIREPROOFING  OR  STAINING  WOOD— Lumber  is 
piled  on  iron  cars  and  run  into  large  steam  cylinders,  and  by 
means  of  a  vacuum  the  air  is  drawn  out  of  the  lumber.  It 
is  then  put  into  a  solution  of  ammonia  and  salts  for  fire- 
proofing  except  for  cheap  work  when  alum  is  used.  For 
staining,  salts  and  bark  extracts  are  used.  After  lumber  is 
entirely  saturated,  it  is  taken  out  and  placed  again  on  trucks 
and  run  into  brick  and  frame  hot  air  kilns  at  125  deg.  F.  See 
Burnettizing. 

FIRE  PUMPS— National  standard  sizes: 


Diameter 
of  Steam 
Cylinder. 

14  in. 

Diameter 
of  Water 
Plungers. 

7K2 

Steam  Pumps 

Length             Gals, 
of                    per 
Stroke.            Minute. 

12                500 

No.  of 
m"Fire 
Streams. 

2 

Suction. 

8 

Dis- 
charge. 

6 

16  in. 

9 

12 

750 

3 

10 

8 

18  in. 

10 

12 

1000 

4 

12 

8 

20  in. 

12 

16 

1500 

6 

14 

10 

182  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Centrifugal   Pumps 

Capacity  and  speed.     The  four  standard  sizes  for  centrifu- 
gal pumps  will  be  as  follows: 


Size 

of 

Pump 

Gals,  per  Min. 

No.  VA"  Streams. 

500 

2 

750 

3 

1000 

4 

1500 

6 

Size   of   Pump    (gals,    per   mirute) 
500  750  1000  1500 

Suction    Inlet 6  in.  8  in.  8  in.  10  in. 

Discharge  Outlet 6  in.  8  in.  8  in.  10  in. 

A  centrifugal  pump  is  usually  named  4-inch,  5-in,  6-inch  or 
7-inch,  according  to  the  size  of  its  discharge  outlet.  This 
outlet,  also  the  inlet,  should  be  enlarged  to  the  Standard 
Underwriter  outlet,  either  in  the  casing  pattern  or  by  reduc- 
ing casting  bolted  to  the  pump  casing,  so  as  to  bring  the 
openings  up  to  the  sizes  given  in  the  table  above. 

Rotary  Pumps — Standard  Sizes  for  Rotary  Fire  Pumps. 


Nominal 

Gals, 
per  Min. 

Approximate 

Width 
of  Buckets. 

Approximate 

Distance 

Between  Centers 

Approx.  H.P. 

Approximate  No.  of    Required 

Speed  Rev.      V/g''  for  100  lbs. 

per  Min.  Streams.  Pressure. 

500 

8  in. 

7  in.  or    8  in. 

275 

2            60 

750 

9  in.  or  10  in. 

8  in.  or    9  in. 

275 

3           90 

1000 

10  in. 

9  in.  or.  10  in. 

250 

4          120 

1500 

12  in. 

10  in.  or  12  in. 

250 

6          180 

Suction  and  Discharge  Openings. 

The   openings   in   pump   casing  for   suction   and   discharge 
must  not  be  less  than  as  given  below: 

500 

Size  of  Pump.  gal. 

Suction   Inlet    6  in 

Discharge  Outlet 6  in. 


750 
gal. 

1000 
gal. 

1500 
gal. 

I'm. 

8  in. 

10  in. 

5  in. 

8  in. 

10  in. 

FIRE   RECORD  183 

FIRE  PUMPS  should  be  in  separate  fireproof  buildings  or 
a  section  so  isolated  that  a  serious  fire  will  not  put  the  pump 
or  source  of  power  out  of  commission.  Fire  pumps  for  stand- 
pipes  using  electric  power,  should  have  their  source  of  cur- 
rent supply  so  protected  that  fire  in  building  they  are  de- 
signed to  protect,  will  not  put  them  out  of  commission.  Like- 
wise, discharge  pipes  should  be  buried  underground  with  post 
indicator  valves  to  control  the  risers  in  the  various  sections. 
Lessons  learned  at  Brooklyn  Eastern  District  Terminal  fire, 
November  25,    1912.     See   City   Mains  and   Reservoirs. 

FIRE  RECORD— A  careful  underwriter  will  not  only  look 
up  the  financial  standing  of  the  applicant,  but  will  refer  to 
the  fire  record  book  which  contains  the  names  of  people  who 
have  had  one  or  more  fires  of  sufficient  importance,  which 
might  indicate  that  they  should  be  under  scrutiny.  The  rec- 
ords are  furnished  by  bureaus  which  collect  this  data  and 
furnish  it  to  company  subscribers. 

FIRE-RESISTIVE— See  Fireproof. 

FIRE-RE§ISTIVE  CONSTRUCTION  is  a  better  name 
than  fireproof  construction.  It  means  that  buildings  and  all 
of  the  parts  of  buildings  are  designed  and  arranged  to  retard 
the  action  of  fire.  There  is  really  no  such  thing  as  a  fireproof 
building. 

FIRE-RESISTIVE  SOLUTIONS— Asbestos  paint  pos- 
sesses the  valuable  property  of  retarding  the  action  of  fire. 
Coating  of  sodium  tungstate  also  retards  the  action  of  fire. 

FIRE  RISK  of  a  substance  depends  upon  two  properties: 
1st,  upon  the  amount  of  inflammable  vapor  that  it  will  liber- 
ate or  furnish  in  a  given  time;  2nd,  upon  the  temperature  at 
which  this  vapor  will  ignite.  Dangerous  substances  possess 
both  these  properties;  the  absence  of  one  vastly  increases  the 
safety. 

FIRE  RISKS— See  Bad  Fire  Risks. 

FIRE  RUINS — It  is  not  considered  good  judgment  to 
write  lines  on  a  risk  which  has  suffered  a  fire  and  the  damage 
not  repaired  or  in  process  of  repair. 

FIRE  SHUTTERS  are  built  in  the  same  manner  as  fire 
doors  if  metal  clad.  Iron  shutters  have  "flat  bar"  or  "angle 
iron"  frames. 


184  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

FIRE-STOPS — Furred  walls  or  partitions  may  he  fire- 
stopped  while  the  building  is  being  constructed,  if  the  work- 
men place  all  the  broken  brick,  loose  mortar  and  other  in- 
combustible material  (which  is  usually  carted  away)  at  the 
floor  levels  of  all  stories  where  the  furred  walls  communi- 
cate to  other  floors.  An  incombustible  partition  of  fire- 
resistive  property  between  sections,  cornices,  frame  walls,  etc. 
(Not  a  complete  cut-off  nor  a  fire  wall),  or  may  describe  in- 
termediate walls  or  buildings  between  risk  and  exposing 
risks.     See  Furring. 

FIRE  STREAM— Standard  fire  stream;  by  this  is  meant 
the  delivery  of  not  less  than  250  gallons  of  water  per  minute 
through  a  1^-inch,  smooth-bore  nozzle,  and  to  secure  this 
volume  it  requires  a  pressure  of  not  less  than  45  pounds  to 
the  square  inch  at  the  base  of  the  nozzle,  which  will  give  ap- 
proximately a  reach  of  63  feet  horizontally  and  about  70  feet 
vertically.     (John  R.  Freeman.)  ^ 

•FIRE  STREAMS — The  quality  of  fire  streams  depends 
directly  upon  the  pressure  at  the  nozzle  and  the  form  of 
nozzle  used. 

By  good  fire  streams  are  meant  streams  which  carry  the 
calculated  distance  retaining  to  a  reasonable  extent  their 
solidity  and  without  excessive  spray.  Costly  experience  has 
shown  that  in  serious  fires  a  small  stream  is  evaporated  as 
it  falls  in  spray  through  the  flames  while  if  a  large  stream  is 
thrown,  enough  may  escape  the  evaporation  to  pass  through 
the  heated  gases  and  reach  the  burning  coals  themselves. 
John  R.  Freeman,  C.  E.,  after  exhaustive  tests  on  streams 
from  nozzles  set  forth  the  following  specifications  for  a  good 
fire  stream,  which  up  to  the  present  have  been  considered  as 
outlining  fairly  the  requisites  of  such  a  stream: 

(a)  A  stream,  which  at  limit  named,  has  not  lost  conti- 
nuity of  stream  by  breaking  into  showers  of  spray. 

(b)  A  stream,  which  up  to  the  limit  named,  appears  to 
shoot  nine-tenths  of  whole  volume  of  water  inside  of  a  circle 
15  inches  in  diameter,  and  three-fourths  of  it  inside  of  a  ten- 
inch  circle. 

(c)  Which  is  stiff  enough  to  attain  in  fair  condition  the 
height  or  distance  named,  even  though  a  fresh  breeze  were  blowing. 


umn^WH-.^^  WALL  185 

(d)  which  a  limit  named  will,  with  no  wind,  enter  a  roofn' 
through  a  window  opening  and  barely  strike  ceiling  witti 
force  enough  to  spatter  well. 

From  the  above,  it  may  be  assumed  that  with  a  certain 
named  limit  the  stream  would  be  good,  while  at  another  it 
may  be  poor.  This  is  just  the  case.  For  instance,  a  stream 
which  holds  its  shape  for  a  distance  of  fifty  feet  may  be  com- 
pletely broken  up  at  seventy-five  feet.  (Fr€d  Sheppard  in 
Fire  and  Water  Engineering.) 

FIRE  TOWER— A  brick  or  other  masonry  tower  or  shaft 
enclosing  a  stairway  of  fireproof  material.  The  walls  must 
extend  from  ground  to  at  least  three  feet  above  the  roof.  No 
openings  are  permitted  except  fireproof  windows  over  a  court 
or  street.  The  entrance  is  indirect,  i.  e.,  a  "lead"  such  as 
a  balcony  outside  of  main  building  connects  to  an  open  air 
vestibule  entering  the  stairway  enclosure.  Stairs  must  open 
on  a  street  or  a  passage  to  street.  Affords  a  sure  exit  from 
building  and  a  vantage  point  for  firemen,  asr^iUDu  flame  or 
smoke  can  enter  the  tower  directly.  rr^  ogii^l 

FIRE  WALL — In  strict  sense  should  be  a  maso'nry  wall  of 
sufiicient  thickness,  height  and  width  to  withstand  the  ele- 
ment of  fires  confining  them  to  a  prescribed  (theoretical) 
area.  Not  less  than  12  inches  thick,  without  openings,  ex- 
tending above  roof  at  least  three  feet  and  projecting  from 
side  walls  of  protected  buildings.  A  wall  subdividing  a  build- 
ing to  restrict  the  spread  of  fire.  It  shall  have  such  thick- 
ness as  to  prevent  the  communication  of  fire  by  heat  conduc- 
tion. It  shall  have  such  stability  as  to  remain  intact  after  the 
complete  combustion  of  the  contents  of  the  buriding  on  one 
side  of  the  wall;  and  its  structural  integrity  shall  be  unaffect- 
ed by  any  wreckage  of  the  building  resulting  from  such  fire, 
or  its  extinguishment.  In  fire-resistive  buildings  with  full 
protection  floors  and  roof,  a  fire  wall  need  not  be  continuous 
through  all  stories,  nor  need  it  extend  through  the  roof.  In 
all  other  buildings  it  shall  start  at  the  foundation,  be  contin- 
uous through  all  stories,  and  extend  three  feet  above  the  roof. 
(N*.  F.  P.  A.)     See  Fire  Prevention  Observations. 

Fire  Wall,  An  Outside — A  solid,  blank  masonry  wall  at 
least   12  inches   thick.     It  is   either  part   of  a   building  or  a 


X96  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

separate  wall  built  to  protect  a  building  agakist  an  exposure. 
In  case  of  frame  buildings,  the  wall  should  extend  five  feet 
beyond  building  walls.  The  fire  record  shows  that  many 
serious  losses  have  been  averted  by  the  use  of  specially  built 
fire  walls. 

FIRE  POINT — Temperature  at  which  oils  become  perma- 
nently ignited.    Usually  several  degrees  above  the  flash  point. 

FIRE  WINDOW — A  window  (wired  glass)  installed  as 
per  Underwriters'  requirements,  and  constructed  of  materials 
which  have  been  tested  and  approved  by  the  Underwriters' 
Laboratories.  The  sash,  frame,  glazing,  automatic  closing 
device  are  included  in  test. 

FIREWORKS  depend  upon  nitrates  to  support  com- 
bustion and  not  upon  chlorates,    , 

FIREWORKS  (special)  contain  red  phosphorus,  a  ful- 
minate, and  are  explosive. 

FIRE  ZONES — Localized  fire  zones  are  found  in  nearly 
every  large  city.  They  are  localities  which  seem  to  attract 
a  certain  class  of  tenants  bent  on  incendiarism.  There  is  a 
set  of  people  who  move  from  one  city  or  section  of  a  city 
to  another  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  incendiarism.  They 
change  their  names  but  not  their  habits.  The  class  is  not 
confined  to  any  one  race  or  nationality.  Too  much  car6 
cannot  be  exercised  in  scrutinizing  the  records  of  antece- 
dents of  applicants  whose  term  of  residence  in  any  particu- 
lar section  or  city  is  very  short. 

FIRELESS  COOKERS— Report  of  a  fire— Fire  was  prob- 
ably caused  by  spontaneous  combustion.  This  was  very 
likely  due  to  the  sides  of  the  receptacle  sweating  and  dam- 
pening the  sawdust,  or  to  the  disc  in  being  dropped  into  the 
bottom,  broke  the  solder  and  allowed  grease  or  water  to  get 
through  into  the  sawdust.  Only  vacuum  cookers  should  be 
used  or  the  manufacturer  should  do  away  with  all  solder 
joints  in  the  tin  and  otherwise  safeguard  the  device  against 
fire.  (N*.  F.  P.  A.,  Vol.  4,  1911.)  Mineral  wool  is  a  good 
packing. 

FIREMEN'S     SEARCH-LIGHT     (acetylene     torch)— A 


FLAMES  187 

portable  acetylene  torch  consisting  of  a  generator  (water  to 
carbide  type),  using  calcium  phosphate  as  an  ignition  agent, 
and  a  burner.  Designed  for  use  when  a  strong,  not  easily  ex- 
tinguished, portable  flame  is  desired;  such  as,  around  fires 
and  in  smoky  rooms.  Its  hazards  are  in  a  class  with  those, 
of  commoner  forms  of  open  flame  kerosene  torches. 

FISH  PLATES — Splices  of  inch-board,  three  feet  in  length, 
nailed  like  splints  for  a  broken  limb,  on  both  sides  of  a 
splice. 

FISH  STORES — In  frying  fish  lots  of  grease  is  used. 
Ranges  become  very  greasy.  The  entire  top  should  be  en- 
closed in  metal  hood,  ventilated  to  proper  flue. 

FISHING  TACKLE— Manufacturing  hazards  are  metal 
and  woodworking.  Use  celluloid  cement  and  amyl  acetate 
when  binding  rods. 

FIVE  AND  TEN  CENT  STORES— Stock  consists  of  al- 
most anything  from  a  pin  to  a  white  elephant.  Very  sus- 
ceptible, hard  to  adjust  losses,  seldom  insured  by  knowing 
underwriters.     See  Variety   Stores. 

FLAMES  (Candle  Structure)— The  flame  of  a  candle 
is  a  curious  thing  as  it  teaches  one  of  the  best  lessons 
possible  to  the  student  of  fire  protection.  Every  lighted  can- 
dle is  a  gas  factory.  If  you  will  look  carefully  at  the  flame 
when  the  air  is  still,  you  will  see  that  it  is  hollow,  like  a 
shell,  and  the  space  inside  of  this  shell  is  filled  with  dark 
gas  not  yet  afire.  There  are  three  principal  regions  to  a 
candle  flame,  the  interior  region  is  dark  and  consists  of  coal 
gas,  the  next  region  is  where  oxygen  is  being  united  with 
the  gas  (the  luminous  part),  while  the  last  is  the  oxydizing 
region,  the  hottest  part  of  the  flames.  The  flames  seen  in 
burning  buildings  have  the  same  structure.  See  How  Water 
Puts  Out  Fire.    See  Conflagration  Blast. 

FLANNELETTE  is  generally  used  for  nightgowns  on 
account  of  its  long  loose  nap.  If  it  becomes  ignited,  it  is 
almost  certain  the  wearer's  life  is  doomed  as  it  flashes  up  im- 
mediately. It  should  be  treated  with  a  lasting  chemical  fire- 
proofing  process.     See  Fireproofing  Children's  Clothing. 

FLANGE — A  projecting  ledge  or  rim. 

FLAP-CHECK  VALVE— A  valve  with  a  flap  hinged  at 


188  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Upper  side,  allowing  the  passage  of  liquids  in  one  direction 
only.     See  Ball-check  Valve. 

FLASH  POINT  of  a  substance  is  the  temperature  at 
which  it  gives  off  inflammable  vapor.  The  lower  the  flash 
point,  the  more  dangerous.     See  Burning  Point. 

FLASHER — A  device  for  throwing  circuits  in  and  out  to 
the  lights  for  intermittent  electric  signs. 

FLASHING — Broad  sheet  of  metal  with  one  edge  inserted 
into  the  joints  of  brickwork  and  projecting  out  several  inches 
and  fastened  down  close  to  the  roof  to  prevent  leaks. 

FLASH-LIGHT  POWDERS— Aluminum  and  magnesium 
powders  mixed  with  chlorate  of  potash  and  other  carriers  of 
oxygen  for  intensification  ignite  readily  and  are  highly  ex- 
plosive; should  be  kept  in  cool,  dry  places. 

FLASKS — Boxes  which  contain  the  mould  Jiitol^l' which 
melted  iron  is  poured  for  casting.     Used  in  foundries; 

FLAT  ARCH— In  floor  construction,  an  arch  with  flat 
upper  and  lower  surfaces.  Generally  not  as  strong  as  seg- 
mental arches.     See  Floor  Arches. 

FLAT  ROOF— A  roof  which  has  a  pitch  not  exceeding  20 
degrees. 

FLAVORING  EXTRACT  MANUFACTURING  —  Use 
steam  and  gas  percolators,  mills,  mixers,  alcohol,  fruit 
juices,  essential  oils.  Care  of  packing  material,  method  of 
heating  kettles  and  grinding  are  main  hazards.  Not  consid- 
ered a  desirable  class. 

FLAX — A  fibre  yielded  by  a  certain  plant.     See  Fibres. 

FLAX  STRAW— Formerly  a  waste  by-product  of  the  flax 
industry  of  the  Southwest,  is  now  utilized  in  paper  making. 

FLESHING — Consists  of  removing,  by  machinery  or  hand, 
the  fatty  tissues  clinging  to  the  flesh  side  of  skins  or  hides. 

FLOATERS — A  policy  that  covers  goods  wherever  located 
without  specifying  any  designated  locations,  except  that  it 
excludes  goods  in  the  main  plant  or  factory.  Not  all  com- 
panies care  for  floating  insurance. 

FLOATING  FOUNDATION— Is  an  entire  flat  bed  of 
concrete  and  steel  reinforced.  Used  only  when  a  solid 
foundation  cannot  be  reached. 

FLOCK — The  refuse  fibre  from  rag-grinding  machines. 


FLOOR  ARCHES  I8d 

The  Flock  which  is  used  for  covering  wall  paper  is  ground 
felt.  The  dust  made  in  grinding  flock  is  heavier  than  air 
and  said  to  be  non-explosive.  Flock  dust  thrown  into  the 
air  spreads  rapidly,  but  quickly  falls  to  the  floor. 

FLOOR  ARCHES— Columbian  System  consists  of  a  com- 
bination of  rolled  steel  bars  and  concrete.  The  bars  are  of 
cross-shaped  section  and  are  hung  to  the  floor  beams  by  steel 
stirrups  cut  to  the  exact  shape  of  the  bar  used.  The  bars  and 
stirrups  are  then  surrounded  by  cement  concrete.  Two  forms 
of  this  system  are  in  use,  the  ''panelled,"  in  which  there  is 
only  one  plate  (the  floor),  and  the  "flat  ceiling,"  in  which 
plates  are  employed  for  floor  and  ceiling.  Beams  are  pro- 
tected by  a  concrete  slab,  made  at  the  building  and  held  on 
the  beam  flange  by  malleable  iron  clips  moulded  in  the 
blocks  and  held  in  place  by  longitudinal  wires.  These  blocks 
are  placed  on  the  beams  first  and  concrete  filled  in  to  make 
the  plate  and  haunches  at  the  same  time.  The  concrete  used 
is  generally  1  part  cement,  2^  parts  sand,  and  5  parts 
broken  stone. 

Columbian  Beam  Plate  is  made  of  concrete  moulded 
generally  at  the  building.  There  are  two  ties  running 
through  the  block  lengthwise  and  two  malleable  iron  clips  set 
right  in  the  block.  Then,  when  block  is  laid,  the  concrete  is 
run  right  in  on  the  top.  It  is  a  straight  concrete  arch.  Co- 
lumbian Iron  Bars  are  made  either  single,  cross  or  double- 
cross  in  section  and  about  5  inches  deep.  These  run  from 
beam  to  beam,  hung  in  stirrups.  The  malleable  iron  clips  are 
protected  by  the  concrete.  There  is  a  ^-inch  air  space 
below  the  beam  between  the  concrete  protection.  The  ceil- 
ing consists  of  a  concrete  floor  plate  as  in  the  previous  form 
with  the  addition  of  lighter  bars,  resting  on  the  lower  flanges 
of  the  beams  on  which  bars  the  concrete  ceiling  slab  is  cast. 
An  air  space  is  left  between  the  two  plates  (floor  and  ceil- 
ing), but  the  exposed  webs  are  either  left  exposed  or  are 
encased   in   concrete. 

Expanded  Metal  Compan/s  System  Flange  Type,  when 
used  for  wide  spans  (from  8  feet  to  15  feet),  has  arched 
channels  about  4  feet  apart,  sprung  from  girder  to  girder  to 
reinforce  and  stiffen  the  floor  plate.     Concrete  ribs  are  then 


190  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

built  up  on  these  channels  to  the  level  of  the  tops  of  the 
girders,  and  sheets  of  expanded  metal  are  laid  flat  on  the  tops 
of  the  beams  and  the  concrete  ribs  to  receive  the  concrete 
floor   plate. 

Another  form  designed  to  give  a  level  ceiling  for  plaster- 
ing is  constructed  by  laying  sheets  of  expanded  metal  on  the 
lower  flanges  of  the  I-beams.  A  3-inch  concrete  plate  is 
then  placed  and  tamped  and  a  lighter  cinder  concrete  is 
filled  up  to  the  tops  of  the  beams. 

The  concrete  used  is  generally  made  of  1  part  cement,  2 
parts  sand  and  5  to  6  parts  furnace  cinders,  the  mixture 
varying  somev^hat  with  the  character  of  the  sand  and  cinders. 

Fawcett  System  consists  of  hard-burned  t'erra-cotta 
lintels  running  from  beam  to  beam  and  filled  on  top 
with  a  cinder  concrete.  For  convenience  in  setting,  the  ends 
of  these  lintels  are  cut  diagonally  and  they  are  laid  at  such 
an  angle  to  the  beams  that  the  shorter  diagonal  is  at  right 
angles  to  them.  These  lintels  bear  on  and  fit  around  the 
lower  flanges  of  the  beams  so  as  to  leave  an  air  space  of 
about  ^-inch  under  their  entire  length.  This  space  connects 
with  the  interior  of  each  lintel,  and  theoretically  there  is  a 
connected  air  space  under  all  beams  and  through  all  lintels. 
Air  flues  or  thimbles  may  be  built  into  the  exterior  walls, 
thus  connecting  these  spaces  with  the  outside  air. 

In  erection,  the  lintels  are  set  without  mortar.  No  reliance 
is  placed  on  them  for  ultimate  strength  as  they  are  employed 
only  as  centers  to  receive  the  load-bearing  concrete.  For  the 
supporting  metal  work,  small  I-beams  are  used,  usually  4 
inches  to  7  inches,  spaced  from  2  feet  to  2  feet  6  inches  on 
centers. 

Guastavino  System  consists  of  arches  of  hard-burned  tiles 
laid  in  three  courses  and  is  used  more  generally  in  public  or 
semi-public  buildings.  These  tiles  are  1  inch  by  6  inches  by 
12  inches,  and  are  laid  in  neat  Portland  cement,  breaking 
joints. 

The  arches  are  designed  especially  for  each  building  and 
may  be  either  dome  or  barrel-shaped.  The  dome  arches  have 
been  used  for  rooms  as  large  as  70  feet  square  and  may  be 
laid  with  a  decorative  tile  requiring  no  finish.     The  essential 


l^LOOR  ARCHES  1^1 

point  of  this  system  is,  that  the  best  cement  must  be  used. 
The  concrete  is  simply  a  filling.  There  are  no  steel  sup- 
porting members  in  the  arch. 

Hennebique  System — The  armature  of  the  beams  is  formed 
by  steel  bars  placed  at  the  lower  flanges,  and  by  vertically 
placed  stirrups  which  embrace  the  bent  steel  tension  bars. 
The  columns  have  the  steel  rods  near  the  corners  and  tied 
together  at  close  intervals  with  hoop  steel  ties  or  collars. 

Herculean  System  reinforced  floor  arch  is  composed  of 
terra-cotta  blocks  held  in  place  between  each  rdW-6f^  tile  with 
"T"  irons.  '  '  " 

Kahn  System — Made  by  Trussed  Concrete  Steel  Co. 
Use  a  truss  bar.  The  cross-section  shows  two  horizontal 
flanges  or  wings,  projecting  at  opposite  sides.  These  flanges 
are  sheared  up  at  intervals  to  form  rigidly  connected  diago- 
nals, making  a  unit  of  main  bar  and  shear  members.  Re- 
sembles a  straight  bar  with  iron  bars  sticking  upward  at 
about  45  degrees. 

Lee  Hollow-Tile  and  Cable-Rod  Floor  System — Combines 
terra-cotta  blocks  with  suspension  cables  for  use  in  long 
spans  in  place  of  other  reinforcement. 

Mackolite  Floor  System  consists  of  moulded  blocks 
made  of  plaster  of  paris,  mixed  with  water  and  chemicals. 
The  mixture  is  moulded  in  forms,  left  a  short  time  to  set,  and 
kiln-dried  for  about  four  days.  These  blocks  are  made  u^  to  a 
maximum  length  of  5  ft.  Flange  protection  tiles  are  held  un- 
der the  beam  flanges  by  dove-tailed  projections  from  the  main 
blocks.  Cinder  concrete  with  nailing  strips  and  finished  floor 
is  employed  as  usual  and  the  ceiling  may  be  plaster  directly 
on  the  blocks.  The  floor  differs  materially  from  most  of 
the  construction  in  general  use  in  that  the  material  is  de- 
signed to  act  as  a  beam  or  lintel  instead  of  an  arch.  No 
centering  is  required  for  erection,  and  as  there  is  no  end 
thrust,  no  tie-rods  are  needed. 

Melan  Arch  System  depends  mainly  for  its  strength  on 
the  use  of  steel  ribs  (usually  T's  or  light  I-beams),  or  by  lat- 
ticed iron  rods  bent  to  the  shape  of  the  arch,  and  sprung  from 
the  lower  flanges  of  the  I-beams.  A  curved  "center"  is  ap- 
plied close  to  the  underside  of  the  ribs  and  then,  starting  at' 


192  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

one  beam,  coarse  concrete  is  filled  in  and  rammed  toward  the 
haunches  for  a  depth  equal  to  about  two-thirds  of  the  depth  of 
the  curved  beam.  The  remaining  one-third  is  filled  with  a  finer 
mixture  of  cement  and  sand.  Each  side  is  built  and  rammed 
separately,  and  the  key  is  then  filled  in  and  rammed  verti- 
cally. This  system  has  been  used  on  spans  of  from  12  to  16 
feet  with  the  curved  rib  spaced  3  to  5  feet,  according  to 
strength  required.  The  rise  of  the  arch  is  from  one-tenth  to 
one-twelfth  of  a  span.  Tie-rods  are  used  to  take  up  the 
thrust.  The  use  of  this  system  may  be  criticised  as  the  con- 
crete is  used  as  a  beam  and  an  arch  at  the  same  time.  The 
closer  the  ribs  are  spaced,  the  less  objectionable  does  this 
feature  become. 

Metropolitan  System  consists  of  a  composition  plate 
with,  wire  suspension  cables  instead  of  metal  bars  for 
the  metal  members.  These  cables  are  anchored  to  the 
walls  and  laid  across  the  tops  of  the  beams  and  spaced  from 
seven-eighths  to  one  and  one-half  inches  on  centers  accord- 
ing to  the  spans  and  loads,  and  are  laid  parallel.  Lengths  of 
seven-eighth  round  iron  rods  are  laid  on  the  cables  below 
the  top  of  the  beam,  so  as  to  deflect  the  cables  uniformly 
three  inches  below  the  tops  of  the  beams  in  a  six-foot  span. 
Centers  are  then  placed  between  the  beams  and  one  inch  be- 
low the  iron  rods.  A  composition  formed  of  about  one  part 
plaster  of  paris  by  bulk  to  two  parts  of  spruce  or  hemlock 
planer  shavings,  with  sufficient  water  to  mix  thoroughly,  is 
then  poured  into  place  and  tamped,  and  brought  to  a  level 
one-half  inch  above  the  tops  of  the  beams.  This  forms  a 
floor  plate  four  inches  thick  ready  for  filling,  screeds  and 
wooden  floor.  The  portions  of  the  beams  below  the  ceiling 
line  are  protected  by  a  two-inch  thickness  of  a  composition 
poured  at  the  same  time  the  plate  is  made,  into  forms  left  in 
the  centers.  The  flanges  of  the  beams  are  wrapped  with  wire 
netting  before  the  composition  is  poured. 

Sawdust  is  used  in  the  composition  of  the  Metropolitan 
floor.  They  use  plaster  of  paris  and  one  or  two-inch  long 
planer  shavings.  This  construction  is  used  somewhat  in 
apartment  houses.  They  put  heavy  plank  floors  on  top  and 
anything  of  weight   is   screwed   through   the   plaster   to   the 


FLOOR  ARCHES  193 

floor.  In  the  Metropolitan  floor  the  under  side  of  beams  or 
girders  is  protected  by  making  a  mould  between  the  "center" 
and  pouring  right  around  the  beam.  The  stuff  is  mixed  up  in 
such  a  liquid  form  that  it  can  be  poured  right  on.  This  type 
has  been  tested  and  accepted  by  some  city  building  depart- 
ments. 

Ransome  System — Use  square  steel  rods,  twisted  cold,  for 
reinforced  concrete  construction.  • 

Rapp  System  uses  rolled  sheet  iron  T*s  laid  on  the 
bottom  flanges  of  the  beams  spaced  8^  inches  *on  centers, 
held  in  position  by  spacing-ties.  Bricks  are  then  laid  be- 
tween the  T's  and  grouted,  and  the  space  up  to  the  beam  top 
filled  with  cinder  concrete  made  about  one  to  eight.  The 
lower  flanges  are  wrapped  with  wire  lath  and  plastered  when 
the  ceiling  is  finished. 

Roebling  System  uses  a  steel-ribbed  wire  cloth  cen- 
tering and  a  cinder  concrete  aich  or  plate.  This  centering  is 
permanent  and  is  sprung  into  place  between  the  lower 
flanges  of  the  beams,  and  the  adjoining  sheets  are  lapped  or 
laced.  Cinder  concrete  is  then  filled  in  up  to  the  top  of  the 
beam  giving  a  thickness  of  not  less  than  three  inches  at  the 
crown.  A  wire  lath  ceiling  may  be  suspended  under  the  arch 
of  the  beam  flanges,  or  the  beam  flanges  may  be  protected  by 
wire  lath  filled  with  concrete.  The  latter  is  much  better.  If 
no  suspended  ceiling  is  used,  the  lower  flanges  of  the  beams 
are  protected  by  only  the  plaster  on  wire  mesh  about  one 
inch  thick. 

"Trussit"  Sjrstem — For  light  concrete  roofs,  curtain  walls 
and  solid  partitions.  Trussit  is  corrugated,  expanded  steel, 
reinforcing  sheets,  made  in  form  of  continuous  "V's,"  erected 
without  forms  or  centering.  Made  by  General  Fireproofing 
Co. 

FLOOR  AREA— See  Area. 

FLOOR  LIGHTS — Heavy  glass  in  wood  or  iron  frames 
inserted  into  the  flooring  to  give  light  below.  In  non-fire- 
proof buildings  if  the  glass  is  at  least  ^rinch  thick  in  iron 
frames,  no  charge  is  made  in  some  of  the  local  rating 
schedules. 

FLOOR  OILS— See  Mops. 


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INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


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'  FLOORING,  COMPOSITION— Used  in  place  of  linoleum 
br  "'cement-finished  floors  in  office  buildings.  The  composi- 
tions vary,  but  the  ingredients  are  asbestos  pulp,  wood  flour 
(pulverized  poplar),  paraffine  oil,  cement,   silax,  manganese, 


FLOWERS   AND   FEATHERS  195 

chloride  of  magnesium,  graphite,  talcum,  marble  dust,  iron 
oxide,  chrome  and  earth  colors,  aniline  colors,  magnesite, 
lamp-black.  The  majority  of  the  compositions  contain  25  to 
40  per  cent,  asbestos.  The  hazards  are  mixing,  blending  and 
cooking  the  various  ingredients.  Steam  kettles  usually 
employed.  Some  (burr  stone)  grinders  for  powders,  pressing 
in  hydraulic  presses.  Usually  air  dried.  The  dressing,  ap- 
plied after  the  flooring  is  laid,  consists  of  linseed  oil,  oxide 
and  aniline  colors  and  turpentine.  To  clean  the  surface  of 
coloring  matter  foreign  to  the  composition  and  also  for  a 
dressing  or  polish  a  mixture ,  of  linseed  oil,  resin,  acetone, 
alcohol,  nitric  'acid  is  used,  then  waxed  with  paraffine.  As- 
phaltum  is  or  may  be  added  for  waterproofing.  Direct  heat 
for  wax  is  objectionable. 

FLOORS— See  Waterproof  Floors. 

FLORISTS— The  fire  record  of  this  class  is  good.  Few 
companies  write  stock  of  live  plants  as  a  very  little  heat  will 
ruin  the  entire  stock.  Owners,  therefore,  cannot  afford  to 
have  a  fire.  Storage  of  large  quantities  of  moss  and  painting 
of  frames  are  principal  hazards. 

Florists  occupying  sjnall  buildirigs,*«  at  times  decorate 
the  entire  interior  ahd  front  of.  building  with  white  birch 
bark  or  similar  fast  burning  material,  adding  to  the  hazard  of 
spreading  fire.     See  Hot  Houses. 

FLOUR  is  one  of  the  best  extinguishers  for  a  fire  caused 
by  the  spilling  of  and  ignition  of  kerosene.  Flour  in  bags,  if 
wet,  will  cake,  spoil  and  constitute  a  heavy  loss.  In  barrels, 
considered  good  insurance. 

FLOUR  MILLS — After  the  grain  has  been  thoroughly 
cleaned  it  goes  to  the  roller  mills  to  be  ground,  the  stock 
being  separated  by  sifting  machines.  After  each  grinding,  the 
coarse  stock  goes  back  to  the  "breaks,"  and  the  fine  passes 
to  the  purifiers  and  between  smooth  rollers,  and  then  to  the 
flour  bins.  In  short,  flour  making  is  a  process  of  separation, 
the  desirable  parts  being  slowly  subtracted  until  only  the 
waste  or  by-product  is  left.  The  hazard  consists  of  dusty 
bearings  and  dust-laden  atmosphere.  This  class  is  not  very 
attractive  as  a  fire  risk. 

FLOWERS    AND    FEATHERS— Artificial     flowers     and 


4.96  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

feathers.  Busiest  season,  September  and  October,  January  and 
February.  Leaves:  Mainly  of  muslin,  sized  with  gum  arabic, 
glycerine  and  paraffine,  varnished  and  shellaced.  Cut  out  of 
large  sheets  of  cloth  previously  painted  and  dried.  Veins 
are  made  in  die  presses  either  cold  or  gas  heated.  Painted 
with  air  brush,  coated  with  paraffine  (waxing),  sprinkled  with 
tinsel  (ground  glass  and  mica),  for  frosting  and  dew.  Tub- 
ing: Hollow  muslin  for  stems.  The  muslin  is  treated  in  a 
bath  of  warmed  linseed  oil,  cut  into  strips  and  drawn 
through  a  "tubing  machine."  This  resembles  a  metal  box  on 
an  iron  table,  two  rows  of  holes  in  the  sides  through  which 
the  strips  are  drawn,  and  heated  by  gas.  Gas  connection 
should  be  iron  piping. 

*'Flock"  tubing  is  ordinary  tubing  covered  with  hair  or 
wool  flock.  "Ciroleum"  tubing  is  made  of  a  mixture  of  glycer- 
ine and  gelatine  to  which  is  added  small  seeds.  When  made 
up,  resembles  rubber.  Steel  wires  are  covered  with  the  mix- 
ture, allowed  to  cool  and  wires  withdrawn,  leaving  a  hollow 
tube. 

Flowers  are  jnade  of  silk,  brocaded  cloth,  velvet,  etc., 
cut  by  hand  or  poVer.  die  presses,^ colored  with  anilines  by 
hand  or  air  brush.  ./^Goffering" :  Goffey  irons  are  small  gas- 
heated  tools,  with  ball-end'  and" Wooden  handle.  Used  to 
round  out  petals.  "''Gripping/^  or  pinching  and  crimping,  are 
very  similar,  all  gas-heated.  Some  flowers  are  of  paper, 
worked  cold,  dipped  in  wax.  The  heating  of  the  wax  kettle 
important.  Metal  flowers,  stamped  out  of  sheet  tin,  painted 
and  soldered  to  wire  frames.     Pain'ted  in  dip  tank. 

"Peps"  are  small  berries,  pollen  stems  or  flower  cen- 
ters. Made  in  automatic  machine  of  a  heavy  thread,  stiffened 
with  sizing  of  gum  arabic  and  starch,  dipped  in  paste  'paint 
and  dried  in  gas-heated  machine.  Cherries  and  fruits  made 
of  cotton,  moulded  in  treadle  machines,  dried,  painted  and 
varnished. 

Preserving  and  Fireproofing  of  Natural  and  Artificial 
Foliage — Mixture  contains  sulphate  of  ammonia,  silicate  of 
soda,  rock  salt,  sugar,  glucose,  and  chlorine.  Mixed  in 
wooden  tanks  in  which  the  foliage  is  immersed.  Delicate 
plants   first    dipped   in    gelatine   and   paraffine   bath.        This 


FLUE  FIRES  197 

process  does  not  fireproof,  but  renders  the  foliage  slow  burn- 
ing at  ordinary  temperature.  Plants  are  bleached  with  di- 
luted sulphuric,  hydrofluoric  and  acetic  acids. 

Feathers  used  in  millinery  are  mainly  ostrich,  chicken 
feathers  being  used  for  quills  and  wings.  Raw  ostrich 
feathers  are  kept  in  bins  according  to  quality.  They  are  sort- 
ed, washed,  whipped  by  hand  to  open  up  the  flues,  dyed  and 
dried  "Branching"  is  the  term  applied  in  making  up  feathers 
in  bunches  or  branches.  Rubber  cement  is  used  from  open 
cups.  Tips  are  colored  by  hand  or  air  brush  with  aniline 
colors,  and  dried  in  gas-heated  ovens. 

Ramie — ^Used  in  making  artificial  plumes.  It  is  sewed  on 
knitting  frame,  steamed,  curled,  tinted  with  aniline  colors  by 
air  brush.  All  flower  stocks  are  very  susceptible  to  fire, 
smoke  or  water.  In  making  leaves  the  handling  of  acetone, 
amyl  acetate,  turpentine,  alcohol,  benzine,  liquid  bronze,  dry 
boxes,  celluloid  for  leaves,  gas-heated  machines,  waxing,  and 
dyeing  are  the  main  hazards. — (Live  Articles  on  Special  Haz- 
ards. (W.  O.  Lincoln,  "Live  Articles  on  Special  Hazards" — 
The  Weekly  Underwriter) 

FLOWING  PRESSURE— See  Static  Pressure. 

FLUE — The  enclosure  by  means  of  which  heated  air  or 
gases  are  conducted  to  the  outer  air,  as  a  smoke  flue  from  a 
smoke  pipe. 

FLUE  DUST  may  be  very  inflammable  if  metallic  zinc  dust 
is  present. 

FLUE  FIRES — Four  or  five  pounds  of  common  salt 
poured  down  the  chimney  will  probably  put  out  the  blaze. 
The  carbonic  acid  gas  so  generated  is  a  fire  extinguishing 
agent. 

FLUORIC  ACID — A  corrosive  acid  used  by  glass  etchers. 

FLUORIDES — Compounds  of  fluorine  with  metals  (cal- 
cium fluoride). 

FLUXES — Various  substances  used  to  prevent  the  instan- 
taneous formation  of  rust  when  welding  two  pieces  of  hot 
metal  together. 

"FLY" — The  linty  dust  produced  at  textile  (woolen,  cot- 
ton, etc.)  working  machines.  It  is  one  of  the  main  features 
to  be  watched  by  the  inspector  when  inspecting  a  knitting 


I'Sfir  INSPECTlOK   AND    UNDERWRITING 

mill.  It  is  always  present  in  the  card  room,  more  especially 
where  all  cotton  or  cotton  waste  is  used.  See  Knitting  Mills. 
See  Dust. 

FLY  WHEEL — A  heavy  revolving  wheel  used  for  equaliz- 
ing the  motion  of  machinery. 

-  FLY  WHEEL  PITS  are  the  cause  of  many  fires.  In  one 
instance  a  steam  syphon  was  located  in  the  pit  and  the  en- 
gineer entered  the  pit  with  an  open  torch  and  an  explosion 
and  fire  resulted.  The  real  cause  of  the  fire  was  the  oil  and 
grease  which  had  been  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  wheel 
pit.  The  oil  and  grease  had  become  volatilized  by  the  heat 
from  the  steam  syphon  so  that  when  an  open  flame  was  in- 
troduced, a  fire  immediately  occurred.,.,, These  wheel  pits 
should  be  kept  clean  of  oil  and  litter.  lowoftf' 

FOAMING — An  undue  amount  of  boiling,  caused  by  grease 
or  dust  in  the  boiler. 

FOLDING  BOX  MANUFACTURING  RISKS  are  better 
than  solid  box  makers  because  less  gluing  is  done,  fewer  ma- 
chines used  and  goods  are  packed  flat  instead  of  in  solid 
form.  Flat  packed  stock  offers  more  salvage  and  presents  a 
less  crowded  condition.     See   Paper  Box  Factories. 

FOOT-POUND— This  term  can  be  easily  understood  as 
follows:  If  you  lift  a  weight  of  one  pound  to  a  height  of 
one  foot  you  have  done  a  foot-pound  of  work.  If  you  lift  it 
two  feet  you  have  done  two  foot-pounds,  and  if  you  lift  three 
pounds  six  feet  you  have  done  eighteen  foot-pounds  of  work. 
In  other  words,  the  product  of  the  weight  and  the  height 
give  the  foot-pounds.  Or  force  times  distance  will  also  give 
the  foot-pound  measurement.  If  you  exert  a  pressure  of  10 
pounds  through  a  distance  of  ten  feet  you  will  have  exerted 
100  foot-pounds.  Watt  discovered  that  a  dray  horse  when  not 
tired  could  do  33,000  foot-pounds  in  one  minute  and  this  unit 
is  called  a  horse-power.  Thus  if  an  engine  hoists  a  weight  of 
330  pounds  through  a  distance  of  100  feet  in  one  minute,  it  is 
exerting  one   horse-power.     See   Horse-Power. 

FOOT-VALVE— The  check  in  the  lower  end  of  a  pump 
section    pipe    preventing   the    backward   flow    of   water    once 
raised  in  the  suction.     See   Strainer. 
•FOREIGNERS,  who  are  natives  of  countries  where  long 


FOREST    FIRES  t^i^^ri  (199 

names  predominate,  frequently  abbreviate  or  entirely  change 
their  name  to  one  of  American  pronunciation,  usually  for  no 
ulterior  purpose,  but  proper  name  should  be  slscertained,  if 
possible.     See  Names. 

FOREST  FIRES— In  New  York  state,  the  Bureau  of 
Foresty  has  inaugurated  a  system  of  telephone  communica- 
tion from  about  fifty  stations  on  high  peaks  from  whence  the 
fire  rangers  can  call  for  help  if  fires  are  discovered,  supplant- 
ing the  old  method  of  having  the  ranger  ride  to  the  nearest 
settlement  for  help,  thereby  giving  the  fire  a  chance  to 
spread.  The  Bureau  reports  state,  that  causes  of  fire  in  order 
of  their  importance  are:  Railroad  locomotives,  lightning, 
careless  campers,  fishermen  and  hunters,  settlers  clearing 
land.  There  are  three  kinds  of  forest  fires — the  "surface 
fire,"  which  merely  runs  in  the  leaves  and  ground  litter;  the 
"ground  fire,"  that  covers  the  underbrush  of  dense  forests, 
and  the  "crown  fire,"  the  most  dangerous  and  terrifying  of 
all.  A  "crown  fire"  is  usually  caused  when  the  ground  or 
surface  fire  reaches  tlie  top  of  a  ridge  or  knoll  and  the  in- 
creased draft  carries  the  blaze  up  the  trunks  of  the  trees  to 
the  tops  of  the  "crowns."  It  is  the  crown  fires  Which  have 
made  the  great  forest  fires  of  history.  Surrounding  the 
burning  area  by  a  trench  from  which  everything  down  to  the 
mineral  soil  has  been  removed,  is  the  only  kind  of  a  fire  line 
which  will  stop  a  ground  fire,  and  it  will  often  stop  a  surface 
fire.  For  surface  fire  "whipping"  or  using  brush  branches  or 
water  soaked  sacking  to  whip  the  burning  leaves  at  the  edge 
of  the  fire  back  into  the  burning  area  is  most  effective.  Sand 
as  well  as  water  is  valuable  in  fighting  this  kind  of  fire,  too. 
There  is  only  one  way  to  fight  a  crown  f.re.  That  is  by  back 
firing — fighting  fire  with  fire.  This  method  is  extremely 
dangerous,  consisting  of  setting  a  counter  fire  far  enough 
from  the  main  body  of  the  original  fire  so  that  all  inflam- 
mable material  will  be  burned  by  the  time  the  fire  reaches 
that  point  and  the  fire  will  die  from  lack  of  material  to  feed 
on.  The  backfire  is  set  far  enough  from  .the  main  fire  to 
escape  the  draft  which  is  fanning  the  blaze. 

FORGE  HAMMER — A  heavy  hammer  for  forging  large 
pieces,   and    worked   by   machinery.      See   Anvil    Manufacturing. 


200  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

FORMALDEHYDE— Used  by  embalmers  and  also  as  a 
preservator  and  fumigator. 

FORMATES — Formic  acid  compounds. 

FORMIC  ACID — A  colorless  liquid  of  pungent  odor. 

FORMS — From  the  brokers'  or  companies'  standpoint,  see 
"Live  Articles  on   Special  Hazards." 

FORSITE — An  explosive  material.  A  foreign  make  of 
nitroglycerine.     Considered  more  dangerous  than  dynamite. 

FOURDRINIER  MACHINE— A  paper-making  machine  in 
w^hich  the  pulp  is  screened  and  made  into  sheets. 

FOUNDATIONS— The  bases  of  walls,  piers,  columns,  etc., 
directly  supported  or  kept  in  equilibrium  by  the  earth. 

FOUNDATIONS  FOR  SKYSCRAPERS  are  sometimes 
laid  as  follows:  Heavy,  hollow  steel  piles  are  driven  through 
quicksand  and  to  rock.  They  are  then  cleaned  out  with  com- 
pressed air  and  then  two-inch  steel  rods  inserted  to  act  as 
reinforcement  for  the  concrete  which  will  eventually  be 
poured  in.  This  system  of  foundation  work  is  used  because 
it  is  much  quicker  than  the  former  method  of  sinking  an 
open  pit  to  rock. 

FOUNDATION  WORK— (Robert  H.  Pearson.)  Foun- 
dation work  calls  for  the  best  engineering  skill,  and  the 
design  and  construction  involved  requires  much  study,  as 
each  problem  demands  a  special  solution.  The  best  condi- 
tion from  an  economical  point  of  view  is  to  have  the  level 
rock  just  below  the  cellar  floor  of  a  building;  if  the  rock 
is  higher  the  expense  of  excavating  is  large  and  if  lower 
the  footings  must  be  carried  to  bed  rock.  Ordinary  ground 
will  maintain  safely  a  load  of  2  to  4  tons  per  square  foot, 
dry  clay  from  4  to  6  tons  per  square  foot,  and  gravel  from 
6  to  10  tons  per  square  foot.  Having  these  figures  in  mind, 
the  necessity  for  footing  buildings  on  good  bed  rock  will 
readily  be  seen,  if  we  consider  the  fact  that  one  of  the  N.  Y. 
skyscrapers  weighs  approximately  120,000  tons,  with  a  wind 
pressure  on  building  surface  computed  at  40,000,000  pounds. 
The  cellar  flooring  of  high  buildings  usually  runs  from  30 
to  45  feet  below  the  street,  and  if  rock  is  not  encountered 
at  that  depth,  it  becomes  necessary  to  foot  the  foundations 
on    concrete   piers   sunk   to   meet   the   bed   rock,   and   if   the 


FOUNDATION    WORK  201 

rock  is  below  the  water  level,  or  at  a  considerable  depth 
below  cellar  excavation,  the  only  known  way  to  reach  it  is 
by  means  of  the  pneumatic  caissons.  These  caissons  are 
simply  air-tight  bottomless  boxes,  rectangular  or  cylindrical 
in  cross  section,  and  equipped  with  a  steel  reinforcement  on 
bottom  which  is  known  as  the  cutting  edge,  the  interior  be- 
ing large  enough  to  accommodate  a  gang  of  men  whose 
duties  are  to  excavate  the  space  within  the  area  which  it 
covers. 

Prior  to  putting  the  caisson  in  place,  a  pit  sufficiently  large 
to  allow  for  its  entry  is  dug  in  the  ground  on  the  site 
which  the  finished  pier  or  monolith  will  occupy,  a  derrick  is 
installed  and  the  caisson  seated  accurately  in  place  to  a 
depth  usually  6  feet  below  the  main,  excavation.  When  in 
place  the  caisson  is  provided  with  a  strong  decking  which 
allows  a  height  of  about  6  feet  for  workmen  within  the 
chamber.  On  top  of  the  caisson  decking  vertical  sections  of 
air  shafts  are  set  up,  these  sections  being  usually  circular  in 
form,  three  feet  in  diameter,  made  of  steel  plate,  each  sec- 
tion measuring  about  10  feet  in  length,  and  forming  a  means 
of  passage  to  the  working  chamber  for  men  and  material. 

The  air  lock  is  placed  at  top  of  shaft  and  usually  consists 
of  a  steel  cylinder  about  5  feet  in  diameter,  7  feet  high  and 
bolted  in  position. 

There  are  two  doors  in  this  chamber,  one  at  the  top  and 
one  near  the  bottom;  an  attendant  is  stationed  on  a  plat- 
form near  the  upper  door,  whose  duty  it  i^  to  regulate  the 
air  pressure,  attend  to  signals  from  working  chamber  and 
open  and  shut  the  air-lock  doors  as  required. 

When  the  outer  door  is  opened,  the  inner  door  is  closed 
and  vice-versa,  thus  retaining  the  pressure  in  the  caisson. 
Signal  is  made  by  whistle  operated  by  compressed  air  within 
the  chamber,  a  valve  and  the  necessary  piping  being  pro- 
vided for  this  purpose. 

A  ladder  is  installed  within  the  shaft  and  workmen  travel 
to  and  from  the  working  chamber  by  this  means. 

Excavated  matter  from  working  chamber  is  loaded  in 
small  canvas  bags  and  carried  by  workmen  to  air  lock,  or 
it  is  blown  out  by  the  compressed  air  through  special  pipe, 


202  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

but  these  methods  have  been  improved  on  recently  and  it  is 
now  possible  to  use  half  a  cubic  yard  bucket  without  inter- 
fering with  the  caisson  efficiency. 

When  the  caisson  and  its  appurtenances  are  put  in  place, 
concrete  is  poured  around  the  air  shaft  so  as  to  form  slabs 
about  12  inches  thick,  this  having  sufficient  strength  to  sup- 
port a  mass  of  wet  concrete  on  caisson  walls;  sections  of 
airshaft  are  added  and  concrete  is  filled  within  the  forms  in 
5  foot  courses  until  the  pier  is  built  up  to  about  one-half  its 
full  height.  As  the  top  of  the  piers  are  to  be  sunk  below  the 
temporary  surface  of  excavation  they  are  enclosed  within 
coffer-dams  placed  3  or  4  feet  beyond,  these  coffer-dams 
serving  to  exclude  the  earth  from  the  column  piers  until  such 
time  as  the  open  excavation  is  completed. 

Forms  are  set  up  within  the  working  chamber  and  con- 
crete is  built  up  to  the  desired  height,  after  which  it  is  sunk 
through  the  water-bearing  ground,  compressed  air  being 
used  as  the  sinking  progresses  below  water  level,  when 
another  section  of  concrete  is  added,  and  so  on  until  the 
anchorage  point  has  been  reached. 

Owing  to  frictional  resistance  it  is  necessary  to  use  cast 
iron  blocks  to  weight  the  caisson  for  the  purpose  of  sinking 
and  this,  in  addition  to  the  weight  of  the  caisson,  forces  the 
work  downward  until  the  footing  is  reached,  when  the  sur- 
face of  the  rock  is  cleaned  and  leveled,  after  which  the  whole 
interior  of  the  caisson  and  shaft  connecting  the  working 
chamber  with  the  atmosphere  is  filled  with  concrete  well 
rammed  into  plac'e,  thus  forming  a  monolith  upon  which  to 
support  the  superstructure. 

FOUNDRIES — Usually  large  area  frame  buildings.  Haz- 
ards of  pattern  and  flask  making;  preparation  of  the  mould, 
including  core  making,  melting  and  reduction  of  the  metal 
to  a  proper  fluidity,  pouring  the  molten  metal  into  the  mould, 
and  cleaning  and  finishing  the  casting,  also  core  ovens  and 
painting  iron  or  wood  patterns.  When  casting,  a  man  should 
be  stationed  on  the  roof  to  detect  flying  sparks  alighting  on 
the  roof  or  on  nearby  structures.  Casks  of  water  with  fire 
pails  should  be  placed  every  fifty  feet  on  the  roof.  There 
should  be   12  inches  clearance  around  floors  or  roof  where 


FRAME   ROWS  20^ 

Stack  fram  melting  furnaces  passes  through.    See  Core  Ovens 
and  Cupolas. 

FOUNDRY  FIRES— Carbon  dioxide  is  a  very  good  ex-; 
tinguisher^  providing  the  seat  of  the  fire  can  be.  enclosed. 
Water  thrown  on  the  glowing  metal  will  for'm  oxy-hydroge» 
gas  and  should  therefore  not  be  used.  ;    i  >]  >?'^ 

FOUNDRY  FLASKS— Frames  of  wood  or  iron,  four 
sided,  no  top  or  bottom.  Used  to  hold  the  sand  moulds  in 
position.  Wooden  ones  frequently  become  charred  from" 
molten  metal.  ^  Fires  arise  from  storing  flasks  inside  oi 
buildings  or  against  wood  partitions  where  hidden  sparks 
break  out  into  fire.  w    x: .       ■  x 

FOUNDRY  SAND— "Water-proof"  sand  used  by  fotirrdef^ 
when  casting  in  sand  moulds  is  composed  of  ground  resin,' 
flour  and  secret  white  powder.  Prevents  the  molten  lead 
from  adhering  to  mould.  Process  is  grinding,  mixiilg';%eat^ 
ing  resin  by  direct  heat.     Non-hazardous.  -"f   )nu; 

FRAME — A  term  used  when  pieces  of  timber  are  put  tO-^ 
gether  so  as  to  form  a  truss  or  other  structure. 

FRAME  CONSTRUCTION— See  Balloon  and  Braced 
Frame.  .  '  i;  1 

FRAME  ROWS — Many  of  these  rows,  have  open  spaced! 
called  c6ck-loft6,  roof  spaces  or  small  attics,  which  are  opeii* 
from  one  building  to  another.    This  space  is  between  the  top 
floor  ceiling  and  the  roof.     It  may  be  from  6  inches  to  5  or  6 
feet  in  height.    Besides  containing  considerable  dust,^  shavMgs 
left  at  the  time  the  building  was  built,  they  are  sometimes' 
used  for  storing  old  mattresses  and  junk  of  all  kinds.     Fires 
once  started,  entering  these  concealed  spaces,  are  hard  to  Id-' 
cate  and   put   out.    The   tendency   of   a   fire   to   go   through 
spaces  is  greatly  increased  by  the  pressure  of  the  air  and  %ot 
gases  produced  by  combustion.    Hot  gases  always  rise,  there-" 
fore  the   danger  is   greater   directly  under   the   roof.     Pafti-' 
tions  of  incombustible  material  to  under  part  of  roofboards 
should  be  placed  on  each   side  of  the   studs  between  build- 
ings at   roof   spaces.     See   Attics;   also   Roof   Spaces,   Cock- 
Loft,   and   Brick-filling.  '  '•        '     }'-" 

FRAMING  AND  TIMBER  WORK— See  Braced  Frattie' 
arid  Balloon  Frame. 


204  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

FREEZING  WEATHER— See  Fire  Appliances;  also  Fuel. 

FRENCH  POLISH  is  a  polish  formed  by  dissolving  shel- 
lac in  spirits  of  wine. 

FRETWORK  MANUFACTURING— See  Cabinet  Mak- 
ers. 

FRICTION  (revolving)  is  the  friction  of  journals  and 
bearings  of  every  description.  Roller  friction  is  the  resistance 
offered  by  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  of  a  vehicle  to  the 
propelling  power.  Sliding  friction  is  the  friction  of  two  flat 
surfaces  as  in  a  planing  machine.  Friction  is  worse  in  suc- 
tion pipes  than  in  discharge. 

Friction  Wheels — Wheels  so  placed  that  the  journals  of 
the  shaft  may  rest  upon  their  rims  and  thus  be  enabled  to 
revolve  with  diminished  friction. 

FRICTION  LOSS  in  fire  hose.  From  experiments  of  J. 
R.  Freeman.  In  pounds  per  hundred  feet,  with  various 
amounts  flowing.  Nominal  diameter  2 J/2  inches;  actual  ap- 
proaches 2^  inches. 

Gallons  Flowing 
100 

Unlined  linen    5 

Rubber-lined,  fair 4 

Rubber-lined,  good   . .     2 

3-inch  hose  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  above. 

FRICTION  LOSS  in  water  pipes  is  determined  by  loss  in 
pounds  pressure  per  square  inch  for  each  100  feet  of  length 
on  different  size  clean  iron  pipe  discharging  given  quantities 
of  water  per  minute. 

FRICTIONAL  ELECTRICITY— See  Static  Electricity. 

FRIENDLY  FIRE— One  that  does  not  leave  its  seat  of 
origin,  as,  for  instance,  a  smoking  oil  stove  or  oil  lamp,  char- 
ring from  radiated  heat  (unless  fire  ensues),  like  charred 
beams  under  a  furnace.  The  damage  caused  by  soot  is  not 
covered  by  the  fire  policy. 

FRIEZING  MACHINES— Sometimes  called  a  shaper,  used 
by  woodworkers.  These  machines  consist  of  two  vertical 
spindles  projecting  up  through  a  table  and  rotating  rapidly 
in  opposite  directions.     Each  spindle  carries  cutters  of  vari- 


50 

200 

250 

300 

350 

12 

21 

33 

46 

62 

10 

18 

29 

40 

54 

5 

9 

14 

20 

27 

FRUIT  EVAPORATORS 


205 


ous  designs  as  desired.    They  are  used  for  beveling,  making 
edge  mouldings.     Considerable  dust  and  refuse  made. 

FROZEN  WATER— No  receptacle  has  been  made  with 
sufficient  strength  to  resist  the  bursting  power  of  frozen 
water. 


A  Friendly  Fire. 


FRUIT  EVAPORATORS— Fruit  is  pared,  cored,  trimmed, 
bleached  with  sulphur  fumes,  sliced  and  dried,  packed.  Evap- 
orators resemble  a  brick  kiln;  steam  or  furnace  heat,  with 
furnace  set  in  kiln,  fruit  on  slatted  floor  above. 

Bleaching  with  sulphur  fumes,  in  separate  building,  or  by- 
putting  same  on  belt-conveyor  passing  through  a  bleaching 
box.  Both  use  a  pot  of  burning  sulphur.  Fruit-preparing 
usually  by  machinery.     Busy  season,  September  to  January. 

FRUIT  JUICE  MANUFACTURING— See  Flavoring  Ex- 
tracts. 

FRUIT  PRESERVING  AND  CLEANING— Raw  mate- 
rials consist  of  tapioca,  currants,  dates,  raisins,  citron,  etc. 
Machinery  consists  of  raisin-seeding  machines,  currant-wash- 


208  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

i-ng  machines,  steam  kettles,  dry-rooms,  tubs  of  syrup.  Not 
a  desirable  class. 

FRUIT  STORES— Owing  to  health  board  regulations,  re- 
'quiring  certain  fruits,  shelled  nuts,  etc.,  to  be  covered,  deal- 
ers are  using  sheets  of  celluloid  for  a  covering.  In  large 
stores,  considerable  quantity  is  kept  on  hand.  If  well  estab- 
lished, considered  a  desirable  class.  Salvage  in  case  of  fire 
is  very  small. 

FUEL  is  a  substance  whose  combustion  in  atmospheric 
oxygen  can  be  utilized  as  a  source  of  heat  energy  for  com- 
mercial or  domestic  purposes. 

In  zero  weather,  the  supply  of  coal  should  be  care- 
fully noted  by  inspectors  as  experience  has  shown  that  a  lack 
of  supply  may  lead  to  the  crippling  of  the  automatic  sprinkler 
equipment  due  to  lack  of  heat.    See  Fire  Appliances. 

FUEL  OIL — Crude  oil  with  some  of  the  lighter  hydro- 
carbons (gasoline,  benzine,  etc.),  removed,  leaving  the  heavy 
tar  oil.  Flashes  usually  at  about  150  deg.  F.  Classed  as 
non-volatile.  In  large  units,  tanks  preferably  buried  under 
ground  rather  than  above  ground.  Should  have  a  steampipe 
or  other  device  suc^i  as  a  blanketing  gas  or  foam  for  ex- 
tinguishing fires.  Conveyor  pipes  to  be  run  underground 
with  accessible  gate  valves  to  shut  off  supply.  See  Petro- 
leum,  also   Oil-burning  Equipments. 

FULCRUM — The  point  about  which  a  lever  turns. 

FULL  RISK — A  risk  on  which  a  company  is  committed 
to  the  full  limit  of  its  acceptances.  In  other  words,  the  com- 
pany has  written  all  the  insurance  it  cares  to  accept  on  the 
particular  risk.     See  Lines;  also  Risk. 

FULL  WAR  COVER— See  War  Risk  Insurance. 

FULLER'S  EARTH  RECOVERY— Earth  saturated  with 
oil  is  removed  from  filter  presses  and  placed  in  steam  stills 
where  oil  is  driven  off  and  recovered  as  refined  oil.  The 
earth  thus  freed  is  calcined  to  remove  all  volatile  and  or- 
ganic matter,  and,  after  cooling,  is  ready  for  use  agfain. 

FULMINATES— These  metallic  salts  are  explosive  with 
heat  or  friction.  Should  be  kept  from  mineral  acids,  car- 
riers of  oxygen,  liquefied  oxygen,  organic  substances  and 
sulphur.     If  water  or  other  liquid  with  which  a  fulminate  has 


FUR    INDUSTRY  207 

been  mixed  is  sprinkled  about  and  the  drops  left  to  dry,  the 
slightest  residual  traces  of  the  fulminate  will  explode  of 
themselves,  the  greatest  violence  being  exhibited  when  they 
are  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Even  the  dust  swept 
up  in  fulminate  works  has  a  tendency  to  explode  sponta- 
neously.— (W.  D.  Grier.) 

FULMINATE  OF  MERCURY  is  made  by  dissolving 
mercury  in  strong  nitric  acid.  It  is  extremely  sensitive  to 
the  heat  of  friction  and  is  handled  immersed  in  water  or 
alcohol  to  prevent  explosion.     Used  in  ammunition  works. 

FULMINATE  OF  SILVER  is  a  grayish  white  crystalline 
material  used  in  torpedoes.  More  sensitive  than  mercury 
fulminate.     Liable  to  spontaneous  combustion. 

FULMINOSE— Cellulose  changed  by  heat. 

FUMEXER — Trade  name  for  an  apparatus  for  venting 
vapors  from  inflammable  liquids.  It  is  a  curved  metal  hood 
with  wire  glass  side  and  back,  equipped  with,  suction  fan 
for  drawing  off  vapor  from  air  brushes,  and  a  drip  pan  for 
catching  excess  liquid. 

FUMIGATION— Carbon  bisulphide  is  sometimes  used  in 
tobacco  factories  to  exterminate  insects. 

FUMING  SULPHURIC  ACID— Used  in  fortifying  the 
mixed  acids  used  for  nitrating.     See  Oleum. 

FUMOTH — Used  in  fumigating  as  a  protection  against 
the  Mediterranean  or  flour  moth.  The  process  is:  Slow- 
burning  paper  is  saturated  with  a  secret  material  (claim  non- 
hazardous).  This  paper  is  slowly  burned  in  a  coal  stove  or 
other  receptacle  which  has  ducts  leading  to  the  machinery 
or  elevator  legs,  etc.  The  fumes  are  forced  through  the 
machinery  parts  by  means  of  a  slowly-revolving  fan.  The 
outlet  from  these  burning  fumigators  is  protected  by  a  dou- 
ble wire  gauze,  and  the  intake  air  is  also  protected  with 
wire  gauze. 

FUR  INDUSTRY  (Charles  E.  Jahne)— The  fur  industry 
is  very  extensive.  The  class  of  employees  is  largely  of 
foreign  type.  The  larger  and  more  important  shops 
are  well  cared  for,  and  attention  is  given  to  the  mat- 
ter of  cleanliness;  but  the  middle  or  smaller  classes 
are     generally     crowded     and     untidy,     and     the     employees 


208  'INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

are  addicted  very  much  to  cigarettes.  It  is  a  common  oc- 
currence to  open  the  shop  door  unexpectedly  and  see  an 
employee  smoking  while  standing  with  a  "SMOKING  PRO- 
HIBITED" sign  directly  in  line  of  his  vision,  then  ask  the 
shop  foreman  if  he  allows  smoking  and  receive  his  innocent 
reply,  "Never."  Then  the  inspector  leads  the  foreman  to 
the  offending  employee,  who,  of  course,  claims  he  was  never 
told  not  to  smoke  in  the  shop,  and  then  the  matter  closes 
with  a  promise  from  both  foreman  and  employee  that  it 
will  never  happen  again,  and  the  inspector  knows  as  well  as 
they  do  that  neither  one  expects  to  make  good  his  promise. 

There  are  many  failures  and  fires  in  the  fur  trade.  The 
manufacturers  of  small  means  are  severely  handicapped. 
There  are,  practically  speaking,  three  grades  of  furriers.  The 
first  grade  usually  has  first  selection  of  importations;  the 
second-raters,  the  second  choice,  and  the  third-rater  takes 
what  is  left  and  usually  pays  as  much  as  others  for  an  in- 
ferior article.  It  is  in  the  last  class  that  most  failures  oc- 
cur. The  better  the  skins,  the  more  easily  they  are  manu- 
factured at  less  expense,  and  the  third-rater  therefore  has 
an  added  expense  to  cover  up  defects. 

The  fur  industry  is  divided  into  many  parts,  namely,  the 
sale  of  raw  skins,  the  dressing  of  skins,  the  manufacturing 
of  hatter's  furs,  of  dressed  skins  into  garments,  of  muffs  and 
boas,  of  robes,  of  caps,  of  fur  tails  and  heads;  also,  the  trade 
^  the  taxidermist,  who  by  his  art  of  dressing  and  stuffing, 
produces  the  animal  hide  in  a  form  representing  its  natural 
outline. 

We  will  endeavor  to  consider  these  departments  and  point 
out  the  hazards  connected  with  each,  so  as  to  give  at  least 
a  faint  idea  of  them. 

In  the  capturing  of  the  animals,  it  is  most  desired  that 
they  shall  be  trapped  rather  than  shot  because  in  trapping 
only  the  feet  or  neck  of  the  animal  is  punctured,  while  in 
shooting,  the  body  skin  is  usually  damaged,  and  thereby  re« 
ducing  the  value. 

Skins  are  known  as  the  seasoned  and  the  unseasoned.  The 
better  of  the  two  are  the  seasoned,  because  they  are  cap* 
tured  during  the  coldest  weather,  that  being  the  time  when 


FUR   INDUSTRY  209 

the  hair  is  the  strongest  and  most  oily  and  the  skin  the 
toughest.  In  skinning  the  animal,  the  punching  process  is 
the  best,  because  there  is  less  liability  of  cutting  the  skin 
or  having  the  flesh  cling  to  it.  After  removing  the  skins, 
they  are  dried  by  natural  air,  and  if  the  pelt  is  soft,  it  is 
sprayed  with  water  to  harden  it.  They  are  then  baled  for 
shipment,  except  the  finest  grade  of  seals,  which  are  often 
salted  down  and  packed  in  casks.  When  they  are  received 
by  the  dealers  in  raw  skins,  they  are  examined  to  determine 
whether  they  are  firsts  or  seconds  (those  without  knife  cuts 
from  the  skinning  process  being  the  first). 

Dealers  in  Raw  Skins  usually  have  drying  and  flesh- 
ing rooms.  Herein  lie  the  hazards  in  their  class.  The  dry- 
ing of  the  skins  is  usually  done  by  gas  heat  and  in  frame 
enclosures  with  the  skins  hung  on  wooden  racks.  The  room 
should  be  made  of  some  fireproof  material,  the  hangers  of 
metal  and  the  skins  so  arranged  that  if  one  or  mofe  should 
fall  from  their  supports,  they  would  not  come  in  contact 
with  the  heating  apparatus.  Steam  heat  for  the  drying 
room  is  the  most  preferable  from  a  safety  point.  All  scrap- 
ings from  the  fleshing  work  should  be  placed  in  metal  re- 
ceptacles. Sawdust  is  often  used  for  the  grease  absorption 
on  the  floor  of  the  fleshing  room.  Sand  is  preferable;  but 
no  matter  which  is  used,  the  sweepings  should  be  removed 
at  least  daily. 

The  next  to  consider  is  the  fur-dressing  trade.  The  skins 
are  received  here  in  bales  generally,  but  very  often  in  loose 
form,  and  stored  in  piles  awaiting  the  process.  In  case  of 
fire  in  the  storage  rooms,  and  the  skins  should  not  be  burned 
but  thoroughly  water  soaked,  they  should  not  be  allowed  to 
remain  in  piles  over  seven  or  eight  days  (the  time  being 
governed  by  the  temperature),  as  they  are  liable  to  become 
heated  and  then  fermentation  would  be  rapid,  and  this  would 
render  the  skin  practically  useless.  The  skins  are  in  turn 
examined,  and  fleshed  if  particles  adhere  to  them;  then,  if 
dirty  or  sandy,  they  are  washed  in  plain  water  and  dried  by 
artificial  heat,  preferably  gas.  They  are  then  tramped.  This 
means  placed  in  a  barrel  (one  skin  at  a  time)  containing 
sawdust,  and  tramped  upon  by  a  man  with  light  slippers  on 


210  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

his  feet.  This  makes  the  skin  soft  and  pliable  and  also 
works  out  the  grease  which  is  absorbed  by  the  sawdust. 
The  skins  are  then  rolled,  e.  g.,  drawn  back  and  forth  over 
round  sticks  by  means  of  which  they  are  stretched  and 
flattened;  and  if  any  humps  or  ridges  still  exist  they  are 
skived,  or  trimmed  down  with  a  sharp  knife.  They  are  then 
cleaned  in  drums,  which  are  large  cylindrical-shaped  casks 
practically  resembling  squirrel  cages,  which  contain  quanti- 
ties of  sawdust,  preferably  cedar  wood  dust.  The  drums  are 
rotated  by  power,  and  the  forced  contact  with  each  other, 
and  the  mingling  with  the  dust,  all  serve  to  clean  the  skins 
and  remove  all  remaining  greases  (at  times  charcoal  stoves 
are  placed  under  the  drums  in  cold  weather),  and  lastly, 
comes  the  hand  beating  with  rattans,  which  serves  to  fluff 
up  the  fur. 

-  There  are  times  when  the  skins  must  be  bleached  or 
dyed.  To  dye  them,  aniline  or  logwood  dyes,  sumac,  am- 
monia, sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  are  used,  and  this  is  not 
a  hazardous  process.  In  the  bleaching  process,  an  ajr-tight 
room  is  needed;  sulphur  cakes  are  put  in  a  crucible  or  ppt 
which  is  set  on  some  fireproof  base,  and  the  sulphur  which  is 
set  on  fire  with  a  match,  burns  very  slowly  without  a  flame,, 
practically  smoldering,  and  gives  escape  to  dense  fumes 
which  penetrate  the  hair  and  hide.  Many  firms  have  fireproof 
vaults  in  which  the  more  expensive  furs  are  stored.  See 
Hides. 

Manufacturing  of  Hatters*  Furs  is  a  very  much  more  haz- 
ardous process  than  fur  dressing,  on  account  of  the  high- 
speed machinery  used.  Hatters'  furs  are  usually  shipped  in, 
burlap-covered  bales.  Water,  if  clean,  will  not  damage  the 
stock  very  heavily  if  immediately  salvaged,  and  providing  the 
stock  is  not  scattered  about.  Smoke  has  a  bad  effect  on 
the  stock  because  it  is  very  hard  to  remove  the  odor.  The 
stock  on  the  pelts  is  a  different  proposition,  and  offers  only 
small  salvage.     Felt  hats  are  made  of  hatters'  fur.  -  ^ 

\  This  specific  work  is  the  producing  of  the  animal  hair  iii 
a  proper  condition  for  use  by  the  manufacturers  of  felt  hats 
and  felted  fabrics.  The  preferable  skins  to  be  used  are  the 
beaver,   coney,  rabbit  and  hare;  because  tbeyi  are  the  most 


FUR  INDUSTRY  211 

susceptible  to  the  carroting  process,  which  is  intended  to 
stiffen  the  hair  for  the  cutting  machines.  Carroting  means 
a  spraying,  usually  with  a  hand  brush,  of  a  weak  solution  of 
nitric  acid,  carrot  oil  and  water  on  the  hair,  and  the  skin 
then  passes  to  the  dryer,  which  is  heated  to  about  150  deg. 
F.  At  one  time  it  was  thought  that  only  coal  fires  were 
proper  for  this  drying,  but  that  severe  hazard  is  now  elimi- 
nated by  the  use  of  steani.  Previous  to  the  carroting,  the 
skins  are  examined  and  fleshed,  if  necessary,  and  after  the 
carroting  they  are  trimmed;  that  is,  the  irregular  edges  are 
straightened;  then  they  go  to  the  combers  and  then  to  the 
shearing  and  blowing  machines,  These  machines  remove  the 
hair  from  the  pelt  and  blow  all  foreign  particles  free  from 
it.  The  blowers  have  separators  attached  and  the  hair  and 
foreign  particles  are  carried  to  different  receptacles.  The 
possibility  of  overheated  journals  covered  with  dust  and  hair 
and  resultant  combustion  causing  rapid  flash  fires  is  a  serious 
feature.  The  finished  product  is  packed  in  papei:  bags  and 
burlap  bales.     The  pelts  are  sold  to  tanners.       ,_ ^ 

Fur  Garment  Manufacturing  contains  practically  ^  tz^ilor- 
ing  hazard,  with  the  additional  feature  of  stretching  and 
drying  skins  by  nailing  them  on  boards  and  standing  them 
around  coal  stoves,,  or  in  small  gas-heated  drying  rooms. 
After  the  frying,  they^  |]^;|^S  ^IV;^  turx^  Jo  ^tj)e^.,^^^^^ 
liners  and  finishers.   ..>;,^>    M^  hn^    ^:'i^f^t'^,V,,^v^^!r•■;>'.•^l 

Muffs,  Boas  and  Caps  are  made  largely  by  pieced 
skins  for  the  cheap  grade  stock,  and  of  whole  skins  for  the 
high-grade  stock.  You  find  the  hazards  of  the  fur  garment 
shop  here  with  the  additional  and  serious  hazard  of  the  use 
of  cotton  bats  and  shoddy,  which  are  used  for  stufiing  or 
filling  purpos:es.  The  latter  very  naturally  increases  the  pos- 
sibility of  an  untidy  shop, 

Fur  Tails  are  made  from-  the  clippings  and  waste.  This 
class  includes,  the  poorest  type  of  fur  manufacturing,  both 
from  the  standpoint  of  tidiness  and  rank  of  employee§^  -CJ^t,- 
ting  and  sewing  are  the  only  operations,      ^.        a.t  y;:;  : 

The  Taxidermist  is  in  a  sense  a  part  ;of  the  fur  trade, 
in '  that  he  receives  the,  skin^  fron^  tj^e  fur  dresser  for 
mounting.     The  serious  f^e^tu^^^  ju  l^^.sj^pp  are  the  storage 


212  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

and  handling  of  materials  for  stuffing;  use  of  waxes  and 
paints  for  tinting  and  finishing,  and  the  woodworking  in  the 
making  of  moulds,  frames  and  bases.  Materials  used  for 
stuffing  are   cotton,   shoddy,   excelsior  and  sawdust. 

In  conclusion,  let  us  sum  up  the  brief  hazards  of  the  fur 
trade: 

Dealers  in  Skins — Fleshing  and  drying. 

Fur-Dressers — Fleshing  skiving,  tramping,  cleaning  in 
drums,  dyeing  and  bleaching,  benzine  for  removing  grease 
from  heads.  ru  w    ju 

Hatters*   Furs — Carroting,   cutting,   blOS^itig,   drying. 

Garment  Manufacturing — Drying,  cutting,  sewing. 

Muffs,  Boas  and  Caps — Cutting,  sewing  and  filling  and  dry- 
ing. 

Taxidermist — Drying,  stuffing,  decorating  and  wood- 
working. 

The  above  all  have  a  grease  hazard  to  some  degree. 

Fur  Tails — Cutting  and  sewing. 

Fur  Pointers — Use  fish  glue  for  setting  seams. 

FUR  COLD  STORAGE  VAULTS— Rooms  should  be  of 
small  area  and  each  equipped  with  ice  house  door  entering 
vestibule  and  the  inner  door  of  two  thicknesses  of  sheet  iron 
interlined  with  4-inch  cork  block.  Direct  pumping  brine 
system  with  coils  on  walls.     No  blower  or  suction  fans. 

Regular  watchman  and  clock  service,  sprinklers  on  dry 
pipe  line  with  control  valve  outside  of  vault.  Automatic 
alarm,  expansion  thermostatic  operating  at  about  130  deg.  F. 
and  connected  with  central  station.  Trouble  alarm,  consist- 
ing of  electric  thermometers.  Approved  electric  wiring, 
outside  switch  with  pilot  light  to  indicate  when  lights  are  on 
or  off.  Masonry  walls  12  inches  thick,  insulated  with  4-inch 
cork  block  and  cemented.  Floors  insulated  and  water-proof 
with  two  layers  of  felt  (tarred),  1-inch  corkboard  alternating 
and  finished  off  with  2-inch  concrete.  See  Consequential 
Damage. 

FUR  HAT  FACTORY— Fire,  caused  by  watchman  open- 
ing door  of  alcohol  recovery  oven,  the  vapors  therein  being 
exploded  by  the  watchman's  lantern.  An  approved  watch- 
man's lantern  should  always  be  used. 


FURNACES  ai^*  111 

FURS  IN  COLD  STORAGE— Underwriters  should  be 
careful  not  to  authorize  "too  high"  a  line,  as  considerable 
value  may  be  concentrated  in  very  small  space.  See  Conse- 
quential Damage. 

FURNACES — For  installation  of  temporary  kerosene  oil 
burners.     See  Kerosene  Burners. 

FURNACES  (portable  hot  air  type)  should  be  placed  at 
least  four  feet  from  any  combustible  partition  or  ceiling.  If 
protected  by  metal  shield,  not  less  than  two  feet.  Wood 
floors  under  furnaces  should  have  sheet  metal  or  one-eighth 
inch  asbestos  covered  with  two  courses  of  4-inch  hollow  tile 
or  equivalent,  this  in  turn  with  at  least  three-sixteenth  inch 
boiler  iron  plates.  Three  courses  of  brick,  top  course  laid  on 
edge,  producing  a  ventilating  air  space,  may  be  used  in  lieu 
of  the  terra-cotta.     See  Cold  Air  Boxes. 

FURNISHED-ROOM  HOUSES— Contents  are  usually 
undesirable,  owing  to  the  great  inroads  made  by  apartment 
hotels  taking  the  better  class  of  roomers,  and  the  rapid  de- 
terioration of  furrtiture  from  wear  and  tear.  The  furnishings 
in  the  cheaper  grade  houses  are  bought  from  second-hand 
dealers.  Many  fires  are  caused  by  smoking,  carelessness 
with  matches,  swinging  gas  jets,  cooking  on  gas,  alcohol  or 
kerosene  oil  stoves.  See  Actors;  also  Boarding  Houses  and 
Lodging  Houses. 

FURNITURE  POLISH  is  usually  made  of  clay,  petro- 
leum, varnish,  linseed  oil,  benzine,  acetic  acid,  glacial  acetic 
acid,  nitro-benzol,  lemon  oil,  oil  of  citronella,  turpentine. 

FURNITURE  STOCK— If  stock  is  all  new  and  only  oc- 
casional "touching  up"  is  done,  packing  material  in  standard 
bin,  safety  waste  can  for  polishing  rags  provided,  this  class 
appears  to  be  acceptable.  Cabinet  making  or  re-upholster- 
ing may  be  done. 

FURRING  is  the  finish  applied  to  a  wall  to  prevent  damp- 
ness. The  usual  method  is  to  lay  furring  strips  on  wall 
about  16  inches  O.  C,  then  place  the  wood  lath  over  the 
stud  and  then  finish  with  plaster.  This  leaves  a  concealed 
space  of  about  3  inches.  Fires  getting  into  this  space  are 
hard  to  locate  and  put  out.  The  up-to-date  method  is  to 
place  asphaltum  directly  on  the  naked  brick  walls  and  thca 


211  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

c6at  with  plaster,  leaving  no  concealed  space.  See  Finish; 
see  Fire  Stops. 

FUSE — Device  for  breaking  an  electrical  circuit  vv^hich  may 
become  overloaded. 

FUSE  (ammunition)  forms  the  point  or  nose  of  the  pro- 
jectile. It  is  made  of  machined  brass  and  aluminum  parts 
enclosing  a  powder  train  and  detonators.  Platinum  fuses 
cause  ignition  when  exposed  to  coal  gas  or  alcohol  vapors. 

FUSE  (powder)  is  a  train  of  powder  or  a  fuse  which  leads 
to  a  charge  of  powder. 

FUSEL  OIL  (amyl  alcohol) — Colorless  to  yellow  liquid, 
produced  in  the  fermentation  of  starch  and  sugar,  and  is 
separated  from  grain  alcohol.  Commercial  flashes  at  over 
80  deg.   F. 

Fusel  Oil — The  refuse  from  the  distillation  of  spirits. 

FUSIBLE  LINK,  as  used  on  fire  doors,  etc.,  made  of  bis- 
muth, tin  and  lead  and  antimony.  The  ordinary  link  fuses 
at  165  deg.  F.  Even  though  a  cord  is  used  in  place  of  wire 
to  hold  open  a  door  or  packing  bin,  a  fusible  link  is  needed, 
as  it  melts  when  temperature  rises  sufficiently,  whereas  direct 
heat  is  required  to  burn  a  cord. 

FUSION  POINT  OF  METALS— 

Blast  furnace  slag 2500  deg.  F. 

Bessemer    retort    slag 3100        " 

Brass    1600 

Bronze    1450       " 

Cast  iron  (pig) 2000-2400 

Copper 3000       " 

Ferro-nickel   steel    2250       " 

Gold  ..^<;M^, 1950       " 

Iron   (pure)    3275        " 

Iron   (wrought)    ., 3300-4000      " 

Lead  ... 630        "     , 

Manganese  steel 2300       " 

Nickel   2700 

Silver 1750       " 

Solt  Solder   340 

Steel ■ 2400r3300 


FUSION   POINT    OF   METALS  2lS 

Tin    450  deg.  F. 

Zinc  750 

Glass    2000-2300      " 

N.  F.  P.  A.  (May  7,  1914).  Reprinted  from  Western 
Actuarial  Hazards  report. 

FUSTIC — A  dyestuff  from  wood  or  Venetian  sumac.  See 
Dye  Woods. 


b-j<i 


/SIG  0. 


GABLE  ROOF — A  sloping  roof  forming  a  vertical  trian- 
gle. 

GALENA — An  ore,  compound  of  lead  and  sulphur. 

GALIPOT — A  white  resin  obtained  from  turpentine. 

GALITH — A  substitute  for  bone,  horn,  ivory  or  celluloid; 
produced  from  milk;  nearly  pure  casein. 

GALVANIZED  IRON  is  iron  which  has  been  coated  with 
zinc  to  prevent  it  from  rusting.  The  iron  is  simply  dipped 
in  zinc  and  is  not  coated  by  any  galvanic  process.  Zinc, 
after  a  short  exposure  to  air,  becomes  coated  with  a  fine 
film  of  oxide  which  does  not  increase,  and  this  preserves 
the  zinc  itself,  as  well  as  the  iron  beneath  it.  The  setting 
of  ovens  should  be  on  non-combustible  bases.  The  acids 
used  are  hydrochloric,  sulphuric  and  muriatic. — (The  Weekly 
Underwriter.) 

GALVANIZING  KETTLES  are  brick  set  kettles,  usually 
5  feet  wide  12  feet  long  and  4^^  feet  high.  The  walls 
are  about  20  inches  thick,  the  inner  6  inches  being  enclosed 
on  the  four  sides  by  a  boiler  iron  compartment  containing 
the  coke  fire,  while  the  top  is  covered  with  metal  plates. 
The  fires  are  kept  going  continuously  as  long  as  six  years, 
for  it  would  take  a  long  time  to  get  the  zinc  in  proper 
form  if  it  once  became  chilled.  No  woodwork  should  be 
near  kettles. — (Live  Articles  on  "Special  Hazards,"  The 
Weekly   Underwriter.) 

GALVANIZING  DRY— Metal  is  packed  in  zinc  dust  in 
sealed  iron  drums,  placed  in  gas  heated  kilns  and  subjected 
to  high  temperature  for  about  six  hours,  which  deposits  a 
coat  of  zinc  on  the  metal. 

Drying  Ovens  (for  galvanizing)  are  usually  enclosed  in 
brick   walls   with   a   steel    beam   and   boiler   iron   top,   while 

216 


GARAGE  217 

the  base  is  half-inch  iron  plates,  underneath  which  are  the 
various  flues,  with  a  coke  fire  at  each  end  of  the  oven. 

GAMBIER — A  vegetable  tannin,  extracted  from  the  leaves 
of  an  Indian  tree.     Used  in  tanning. 

GAMBRELL  ROOF— A  roof  with  four  sloping  sides. 

GARAGE — A  housing  place  for  automobiles.  Gasoline 
feature  important.  Hazards  of  repairing  batteries  and  seal- 
ing same  with  pitch,  which  is  generally  heated  by  gas;  braz- 
ing, cleaning  parts  with  gasoline,  burning  out  carbon  cylin- 
ders of  cars,  storage  of  oils,  smoking.  Oily  waste  should 
be  placed  in  proper  cans.  It  has  been  found  that  by 
placing  fire  pails  two  to  five  feet  above  the  floor  as  per  Un- 
derwriters' requirements,  they  are  often  broken  by  automo- 
biles backing  into  them  as  they  hang  on  the  wall.  Some  rule 
should  be  adopted  by  rating  bureaus  to  allow  full  allowance 
for  fire  extinguishers  without  pails,  or  to  have  a  barrel  of 
sand  with  fire  pails  nearby  instead  of  hanging  pails  ^here 
they  can  be  easily  broken.  A  "bumper  rail"  along  the  wall 
is  recommended.     See  Sewers. 

GARBAGE  REDUCTION  PLANT— The  garbage  arrives 
in  scows.  Grab  buckets  deposit  it  in  hoppers;  it  drops  to 
traveling  conveyors  on  which  it  is  carried  to  digesters  and 
receiving  tanks,  and  to  the  presses,  which  expel  the  water 
and  grease.  The  water  and  grease  run  off  to  catch  basins 
and  the  solid  matter  (vegetable  garbage)  is  taken  from  the 
presses  and  shoveled  to  a  traveling  conveyor,  which  de- 
posits it  in  dryers.  From  the  dryers,  the  material  is  sent 
to  the  degreasing  plant  (naphtha  extracting  process),  which 
extracts  nearly  all  of  the  remaining  grease  by  means  of 
percolators,  which  are  horizontal  tanks,  steam  heated,  with 
strainers.  From  the  percolators  it  is  run  to  the  evaporating 
tanks  (steam  280  deg.  F.),  where  the  vapor  (naphtha)  is 
taken  off  by  means  of  piping  to  the  condensers.  After  con- 
densing, the  naphtha  is  again  returned  to  the  storage  tanks. 
At  this  stage  the  mass  (garbage  tankage)  is  again  conveyed 
to  the  dryers,  where  it  is  redried  and  put  through  the  per- 
colating process,  after  which  time  the  mass  (tankage)  is 
practically  free  from  grease  and  deposited  into  storage  house 
in  dust  form  to  be  used  fpr  fertilizer.    See  Extraction  Plants. 


218  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

GARBAGE  TANKAGE— A  product  from  digesters  and 
extractors  of  garbage  reducing  plants.  Subject  to  sponta- 
neous combustion. 

GARMENT  WORKERS— Many  fires  have  been  caused 
by  smoking,  untidiness,  gas  or  electric  pressing  irons,  in- 
dividual motors.  Considered  an  unprofitable  class.  See  Cut- 
ting and  Work  Tables;  also  Pressing  Tables. 

GARNET — A  machine  which  winds  cotton  bats  on  cylin- 
ders in  sheets.     A  type  of  wool  card. 

GAS  BLACK — The  soot  produced  from  the  combustion 
of  hydro-carbon  fuel  or  illuminating  gas.  Also  made  from 
natural  gas  burned  under  revolving  cylinders,  the  deposited 
soot  being  removed  by  scraping.     It  is  nearly  pure  carbon. 

GAS  BRACKETS  should  be  3  feet  below  any  combustible 
or  open  ceiling.  If  shielded  with  suspended  metal  shield, 
they  may  be  18  inches  distant.  No  gas  bracket  shall  be 
nearer  than  5  inches  measured  from  the  burner  to  the  wood- 
work or  other  combustible  material.  No  swinging  or  fold- 
ing gas  brackets  allowed  against  any  combustible  partitions; 
same  must  be  protected  by  wire  cages  and  metal  placed  on 
walls  where  brackets  swing.  If  gas  brackets  over  sewing 
machines  are  nearer  than  2  feet  they  must  have  wire  globes. 
No  rubber  hose  is  permitted  to  be  attached  to  any  gas  jet. 

GAS  CYLINDERS— See  Compressed  Gas  Cylinders. 

GAS  DISTRIBUTING  PLANTS— The  gas  is  made  else- 
where and  comes  through  pipe  lines  to  gas  holders  and  is 
then  distributed  to  various  sections  of  the  city  under  press- 
ure. Many  buildings  comprise  one  of  these  plants.  Power 
house  with  boilers,  dynamos,  generators,  exhauster  house 
with  pumps,  water  cooling  tower,  condensers,  carpenter  shop, 
oil  storage  house,  lamp  storage  shed,  battery  recharging  and 
repairing,  machine  shop,  meter  repair  shop,  linemen's  storage 
and  supplies,  including  lubricating  oil,  conduits,  cables, 
paint,  ladders,  tackle;  blacksmith  shop,  arc  lamp  repairing, 
paint  shop.     See  Gas  Works. 

GAS  ENGINES— The  hazards.  Rubber  gas  bags  are  dan- 
gerous because  escaping  gas,  due  to  accident  or  leak,  may- 
cause  an  explosion  or  fire.  When  used  they  should  be  3 
feet  in  a  lateral  direction  from  ignition  charnber.     Exhaust 


GAS   METERS  8t» 

chambers  or  pots  become  very  hot.  Frequently  they  set  on 
wood  to  reduce  vibration  incident  to  the  operation  of  the 
engine,  and  for  support.  No  wood  should  be  allowed.  The 
chamber  or  pot  should  be  raised  at  least  four  inches  above 
the  floor  or  set  on  incombustible  base.  The  exhaust  pipe 
should  be  two  inches  from  all  woodwork  and  enter  a  proper 
flue,  extending  at  least  six  inches  above  the  flue  or  chimney. 
Floors  under  and  24  inches  outside  of  engine  should  be 
metal  clad  with  flanged  edges.  Woodwork  back  of  engine 
should  be  sheathed  with  metal  as  the  wheel  throws  con- 
siderable oil. 

GAS  EQUALIZERS — Galvanized  iron  gas  equalizers  are 
now  being  used  in  connection  with  gas  engines  in  place  of 
the  old  rubber  bags.  They  insure  a  steady  and  uniform  gas 
pressure  to  the  engine  and  are  practically  indestructible. 
The  old  style  rubber  gas  bag  was  the  cause  of  many  fires. 

GAS  AND  VAPOR  FIRES  can  best  be  fought  by  closing 
all  doors  or  other  means  of  ventilation,  thereby  excluding 
the  air,  and  then  turning  on  steam. 

GAS  FIXTURES  AND  GLOBES— Stocks  usually  kept  in 
basements.  Stock  is  crated  or  in  barrels  packed  with  straw 
or  salt  hay.  Hazards  are  overcrowded  stock,  unsafe  gas 
brackets  without  wire  cages,  untidy  premises  due  to  packing 
material.     See  Chandelier  Manufacturing. 

GAS  HOLDERS — Large  steel  tanks,  usually  near  gas 
works.  Used  for  storing  the  gas  after  it  is  manufactured. 
These  holders  are  really  reservoirs  from  which  gas  is  con- 
stantly being  taken  and  constantly  replenished,  as  a  gas 
plant  never  ceases  manufacturing  its  product. 

Gas  Holders  (gasometers),  holding  millions  of  cubic 
feet  of  gas  are  a  menace  to  surrounding  buildings  in  case 
of  destruction  by  wind  storms  or  other  agencies..  . 

GAS  LIGHTS — Inverted  gas  light  mantles  have  "caused 
many  fires  by  reason  of  red  hot  carbon  dropping  on  com- 
bustible material.  A  wire  mesh  should  be  placed  under 
the  burners  or  an  enclosed  globe  used.  'Gas  Lights  which 
are  two  feet  or  less  above  sewing  tables  should  be  caged. 
See  Cluster  Gas  Lamps.      '     .     .**  ,.     ,         ■   , 

GAS  METERS— Fir^s  h^ve  tnelt^cl  off  X^^  connectmg  pipe 


220  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

and  caused  a  jet  of  burning  gas  to  be  projected  into  the 
room,  setting  fire  to  surrounding  woodwork.  An  outside 
shut-off  valve  is  recommended  for  business  buildings.  Leaky 
meters  are  responsible  for  numerous  fires.  Meters  should 
not  be  placed  near  gas  jets.  Looking  for  leaks  in  meters 
with  a  candle  has  caused  many  explosions.  See  Gas  Safety 
Valves. 

GAS  OIL — A  residue  from  the  process  of  making  gas. 
Flash  point  over  100  deg.  F.     Not  volatile. 

GAS  PIPES — Fires  have  been  caused  by  leaky  service 
pipes  which  have  become  so  corroded  that  scales  could  be 
picked  off  with  the  fingers.  Holes  appear  in  the  pipe  and 
quantities  of  gas  fill  the  premises.  If  an  open  light  is  near, 
an  explosion  is  apt  to  follow. 

GAS  PRESSING  IRONS  left  with  gas  burning  cause  fires 
by  burning  through  tables,  unless  on  iron  stands  three 
inches  high.     See  Pressing  Tables. 

GAS  PURIFYING  WASTE— A  fertilizer  ingredient.  See 
Iron  Mass. 

GAS  RANGES — Vents  from  gas  ranges  should  be  of  three 
or  four-inch  tile,  extending  through  roof  to  the  outer  air. 
Usually  they  are  of  galvanized  iron  and  set  in  between  studs 
of  frame  walls  and  terminate  in  attics.  It  takes  but  a  short 
time  for  this  flue  or  vent  to  become  heavily  coated  on  the 
inside  with  grease.  Should  a  pan  of  fat. boil  over,  fire  would 
ensue  and  pour  out  into  the  attic.     See  Ranges. 

GAS  STOVES  should  be  placed  on  iron  stands  and  be 
connected  with  rigid  iron  piping.  Rubber  tubing  should  never 
to  be  used.  Stoves  must  be  six  inches  from  combustible  par- 
titions and  shielded  to  12  inches  above  the  stove.  See  Baf- 
fle Plate. 

GAS  SAFETY  VALVE— A  safety  device  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  gas  from  meters  during  fires.  The  danger  of  es- 
caping gas  from  meters  supplying  fuel  to  a  fire  and  endan- 
gering lives  of  firemen  is  too  apparent  to  need  comment. 
The  gas-valve  safety  device  for  preventing  the  escape  of  gas 
consists  of  a  valve  plug  of  any  size  desired  with  a  hard  steel 
ball  soldered  into  hollow  of  plug  with  solder  that  will  melt 


//cJ 

JIN  UNSAFS  ARRAmeMBNT 


Copyright,    1916.   G.   A.   Ina.    Co. 


2i2  INSPECTION   AK£)    UNDERWI^ITING 

at   120   deg.    F.      No   special   fittings   are   required,   ordinary 
gas  tee  being  used  in  place  of  elbow  over  the  meter. 

The  valve  will  automatically  shut  off  the  gas  in  case  fire 
burns  oflf  the  lead  meter  connections  or  melts  the  soldered 
joints  on  the  meter  itself.  When  the  solder  melts,  the  ball 
drops  into  the  mouth  of  the  pipe  and  the  gas.  pressure  is  on 
top  of  the  ball  and  not  against  it.  The  nipple  or  pipe  in 
the  bottom  of  tee  should  be  reamed  just  a  little  to  make  it 
perfectly  round  as  seat  for  the  ball.  This  device  was  in- 
vented by  John   P.   Doyle,  a  fireman. 

GAS  TUBING  MANUFACTURING— Raw  stock  is  wire, 
cotton  and  silk  yarn,  glycerine,  glue,  litharge,  Venetian  red, 
metal  parts,  rubber  tips.  Hazards  are  steam  heated  kettles 
for  glycerine,  glue  dipping  mixture,  wire  drawing  and  spin- 
ning. 

GAS  WELL— How  Mr.  Guerin,  of  the  New  York  Fire  De- 
partment, extinguished  a  fire  in  a  burning  gas  well.  Put 
men  behind  shields,  push  the  shields  to  within  ten  or  fifteen 
feet  of  the  well,  raise  the  pressure  in  the  two  seven-eighths 
of  an  inch  nozzle  to  forty  or  fifty  pounds  and  have  the 
streams  played  on  the  base  of  the  well  casing  so  that  they, 
converged  from  an  angle  of  90  degrees. 

"This  was  done.  Then  I  had  the  streams  slowly  raised 
up  to  and  through  the  column  of  gas  until  they  reached  the 
base  of  the  glare.  At  this  juncture  the  men  who  were  hand- 
ling the  hose  were  ordered  to  squeeze  their  thumbs  against 
the  stream  at  the  nozzles  so  that  the  water  spread  like  a 
fan.     They  followed  instructions. 

"Striking  the  flame  where  it  merged  with  the  column  of 
gas,  the  water  became  steam,  the  roar  of  which  exceeded 
that  of  the  gas  itself.  The  fire  went  out  like  a  snuffed  can- 
dle.    The  steam  had  simply  cut  off  the  flame  from  the  gas." 

GAS  WORKS— Pentone  used  for  standardizing  light  in- 
stead of  candles  is  a  hydro-carbon,  very  volatile  and  inflam- 
mable. In  the  reviving  room,  chips,  sawdust  and  iron  filings 
that  are  being  revived  should  be  not  spread  more  than  12 
inches  deep,  because  the  mixture  may  spontane  and  set  fire 
to  woodwork.     See  Gas  Distributing  Plants. 

GASKET — Rope,  yarn  or  hemp  used  for  stuffing  the  joints 


GASOLINE  223 

of  water  pipes,  or  rubber  bands  for  making  connections  wa- 
ter tight. 

GASOLINE— Flash  point  84  to  88  deg.  F.  Ordinary  gaso- 
line boils  at  113  deg.  F.  Its  vapor  is  power  producing;  when 
pure  will  not  explode,  but  when  mixed  with  from  2  to  6 
parts  of  air  becomes  explosive  in  the  presence  of  an  open 
light  or  flame.  When  stored  above  ground  it  is  con- 
stantly vaporizing  due  to  the  changing  temperatures  of 
the  atmosphere.  Should  be  stored  underground  in  ap- 
proved tanks  where  the  temperature  remains  nearly  sta- 
tionary. When  stored  in  this  manner,  it  will  not  explode. 
It  is  often  used  for  cleaning  automobile  parts  by  means  of 
a  brush.  When  used  in  this  manner  around  the  engine,  a 
spark  from  the  motor  is  apt  to  explode  the  accumulated 
vapors,  enveloping  the  car  in  flames.  Cleaning  chamois 
skin  gloves  with  gasoline  by  rubbing  them,  or  cleaning  silk 
in  the  same  way,  or  filtering  gasoline  through  a  chamois 
cloth  when  filling  an  automobile  tank,  generates  static  elec- 
tricity which  will  ignite  the  vapor.  See  Benzine.  See  Pe- 
troleum. 

Gasoline  vapor  is  about  three  times  as  heavy  as  air,  and 
therefore  the  greater  portion  will  be  found  near  the  floor, 
and  travel  to  an  open  flame,  flash  back  to  the  container,  and 
cause  an  explosion.  One  pint  of  gasoline  will  make  200 
cubic  feet  of  air  explosive. 

Gasoline,  benzine,  naphtha  or  other  fluids  which  emit  an 
inflammable  vapor  below  the  temperature  of  100  deg.  F. 
should  be  stored  outside  all  buildings  in  steel  tanks  buried 
at  least  two  feet  underground. 

Storage  tank  shall  be  constructed  of  steel  at  least  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  thick;  shall  have  a  capacity  of  not  more 
than  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  gallons,  and  shall,  under 
test,  stand  a  hydrostatic  pressure  of  at  least  one  hundred 
pounds  to  the  square  inch. 

Tank  shall  be  coated  on  the  outside  with  tar  or  other 
rust-resisting  material,  shall  rest  upon  a  solid  foundation, 
and  shall  be  embedded  in  and  surrounded  by  at  least  twelve 
inches  of  Portland  cement  concrete,  composed  of  two  parts 
pf  cement,  three  parts  of  sand  and  five  parts  of  stone. 


??4  INSPECTION„j^Np^^l[JNDERWRITING 

No  storage  tank  shall  be  placed  under  the  sidewalk  nor  in 
front  of  the  building  line. 

Storage  tank  shall  be  equipped  with  a  filling  pipe,  a  draw- 
ing-off  pipe  and  a  vent  pipe;  provided,  however,  that  no  stor- 
age tank  installed  as  part  of  an  hydraulic  or  pressure  stoxr 
age  system  shall  be  required  to  have  a  vent  pipe.  All  pipes 
shall  be  of  galvanized  wrought  iron  and  shall  have  malleable 
iron  fittings.  All  screw  joints  shall  be  made  with  litharge 
and  glycerine. 

The  filling  pipe  shall  be  at  least  two  inches  in  diameter, 
and  shall  be  laid  at  a  descending  grade  from  the  sidewalk 
in  front  of  the  garage  to  the  tank. 

The  intake  of  the  filling  pipe  shall  be  located  in  a  heavy 
metal  box,  which  shall- be  sunk  flush  with  the  sidewalk  at  the 
curb  level  and  fitted  with  a  heavy  metal  cover,  which  shall 
be  kept  locked  when  not  in.  use. 

The  filling  pipe  shall  be  closed  at  the  intake  by  a  cock  or 
valve  fitted  with  a  coupling  for  attaching  to  the  hose  of  a 
barrel  wagon,  and  with  a  screw  cap  to  close  the  opening 
when  not  in  use. 

Each  filling  pipe  shall  be  provided  with  a  screen  made 
of  two  thicknesses  of  20-mesh  brass  wire  gauze,  placed  im- 
mediately below  the  filling  cock  or  valve. 

The  vent  pipe  shall  be  at  least  one  inch  in  diameter,  and 
shall  run  from  the  tank  to  the  outer  air  at  least  ten  feet 
above  the  roof  of  the  garage  and  at  least  ten  feet  from  the 
nearest  wall  of  any  other  building,  and  shall  be  well  braced 
m  position. 

The  vent  pipe  shall  be  capped  with  a  double  goose-neck, 
hood  or  cowl,  and  provided  with  a  screen  made  of  two  thick- 
nesses of  20-mesh  brass  wire  gauze,  placed  just  below  the 
gooseneck  or  cowl. 

Regulations  of  the  Municipal  Explosives  Commission  of 
the   City  of  New  York.     See   Petroleum;   also   Liquid  Tank. 

GASOLINE  ENGINE  fires  occur  largely  from  exhaust 
pipes  and  from  ''back-fires."  The  small  engine  generally  has 
its  gasoline  supply  in  the  base,  and  very  often  the  unions 
of  the  pump  connections  become  leaky,  and  gasoline  drips 
from   them.      If   possible,   when   inspecting   a   risk   having   a 


GASOLINE   SPRAY   FOR   AUTOS  225 

gasoline  engine,  the  machine  should  be  seen  in  operation. 
The  main  cause  of  trouble  is  the  exhaust.  Carbon  very 
quickly  collects  in  the  muffler  and  exhaust  pipe,  and  is  likely 
to  give  trouble  if  the  exhaust  pot  is  confined  or  near  in- 
flammable material.  The  engines  burning  fuel  oil  or  dis- 
tillate should  be  treated  same  as  gasoline  engines.  In  prac- 
tice, the  exhaust  pipe  from  big  engines  is  run  to  a  concrete 
muffler,  usually  built  underground  outside  of  building  with 
"  wooden  tops.  Sometimes  these  concrete  pits  burst  open  or 
the  tops  burn  off.  This  is  a  severe  hazard  to  buildings  of 
frame  construction  or  where  any  combustible  material  is  ad- 
jacent to  the  muffler. 

GASOLINE  SPRAY  FOR  CLEANING  AUTOS— A  proc-. 
ess  employed  for  cleaning  oily  automobile  machinery  with- 
out dismantling.  To  meet  this  demand  a  gasoline  spraying 
machine  has  been  placed  on  the  market.  This  machine  is 
made  of  galvanized  iron  and  resembles  a  2i/^-gallon  chemi- 
cal extinguisher  in  appearance.  It  is  provided  with  about 
5  feet  of  ^-inch  rubber  hose,  a  ^-inch  nozzle,  a  pressure 
gauge  and  an  air  pump  fastened  to  the  tank.  For  cleaning 
purposes  about  2  gallons  of  gasoline  is  placed  in  the  tank 
and  then  an  air  pressure  of  from  50  to  150  pounds  is  pumped 
up.  To  clean  the  automobile  parts,  from  o'ne  to  two  gallons 
of  gasoline  under  pressure  is  sprayed  on  the  machine  parts. 
It  is  understood  that,  after  the  car  has  been  sprayed,  the 
gasoline  is  allowed  to  vaporize  and  the  vapor  to  blow  away 
before  the  machine  is  started.  Notwithstanding  this  sup- 
posed method  of  procedure  several  fires  have  occurred  due 
to  premature  starting  of  the  automobile.  At  some  garages 
this  is  done  inside  of  the  buildings,  and  at  others  it  is  done 
in  the  street.     An  extremely  hazardous  process.       •"       ^ 

GASOLINE  STORAGE  TANKS— One  type  td  Jpi-eyeht 
the  accumulation  of  vapors.  Water  is  poured  in  tank  forc- 
ing the  gasoline  to  the  top.  The  water  is  drained  off  to 
admit  of  more  gasoline.  Tanks  are  also  equipped  with  froth 
or  foam  extinguishing  apparatus,  consisting  of  a  glass  bottle 
containing  acid  which  is  broken  by  a  hammer  when  the  fusi- 
ble links  melt,  letting  the  acid  mix  with  chemicals  such  as  bi- 
carbonate   of   soda   and    soap    bark,    which,    under   pressure, 


225  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

forces  the  resulting  foam  or  froth  on  the  surface  of  the 
burning  liquid.  Gasoline  is  also  stored  under  gas,  such  as 
nitrogen  or  carbon  dioxide  under  pressure. 

GASOLINE  STOVES— Considered  more  dangerous  than 
kerosene  stoves.  The  storage  and  handling  of  supply  is  im- 
portant.    Leaky  stoves  are  dangerous. 

GASSING — Passing  material  through  a  gas  flame  or  over 
rows  of  Bunsen  burners  in  order  to  remove  the  down  or 
fuzz. 

^  GATE  VALVE — The  valve  used  on  sprinkler  equipments 
to  control  the  water  supply.  They  should  always  be  sealed 
open.  The  latest  type,  O.  S.  &  Y.  (outside  screw  and  yoke), 
enables  the  inspector  to  see  at  a  glance  if  valve  is  open.  The 
old  style  "target"  valve  depending  on  a  plate  marked  "open" 
or  "shut"  is  not  looked  upon  with  favor  by  inspection  de- 
partments. Emergency  gate  valve  at  base  of  tank  should 
not  be  sealed.  This  valve  is  used  to  drain  the  tank  in  case 
of  accident.     See  Valves;  see  Sprinkler  Equipments. 

GEARING— A  train  of  cog-wheels. 

GELATINE — A  substance  obtained  from  one  of  the  boil- 
ings in  the  manufacture  qf  glue. 

GELATINE  CAPSULES  FOR  MEDICINE— Gelatine  is 
boiled  in  kettles,  usually  Mott  kettles  (by  direct  heat),  to  a 
thick  mass  and  moulded  into  capsule  form  by  hydraulic 
presses,  dried  in  dry  rooms.     Oily  floors  frequently  found. 

GENTS*  FURNISHING  stocks,  if  damaged  by  water,  have 
a  fair  salvage  as  they  can,  in  most  cases,  be  relaundered  and 
pressed  and  sold  at  auction  sales. 

GEORGIA  PINE  TURPENTINE— See  Turpentine  Spir- 
its. 

GERMAN  SILVER — An  alloy  of  copper,  zinc  and  nickel. 
It  does  not  contain  sterling  silver. 

GILSONITE — A  high-grade  asphaltum,  mined  in  the 
western  states.  Melts  at  300  to  350  deg.  F.  Used  in  mak- 
ing cable  insulation.  Is  useless  if  water  comes  in  contact 
with  it  before  being  compounded. 

GIN — A  machine  for  separating  cotton  from  its  seeds.  See 
Cotton  Gins. 

GINSENG   ROOT — A   yellowish    root,    irnpprted    mainly 


GLASS    WORKS  227 

from  China.  Used  extensively  by  the  Chinese  for  medicinal 
purposes.     Susceptible  to  water  and   smoke   damage. 

GIRDER — A  timber  larger  than  a  common  beam  and  on 
which  the  floor  beams  rest. 

GLASS  OR  CHINA  is  usually  packed  in  barrels  or  boxes 
with  plenty  of  straw  or  salt  hay.  In  case  of  fire,  the  place 
might  resemble  the    after  effect  of  a  ''bull  in  a  china  shop." 

GLASS  DEALERS— Have  stock  of  ordinary  sheet  glass, 
art  glass,  wired  glass,  and  plate  glass.  Turpentine  is  used 
for  cleaning  off  old  glass  brought  in  from  jobs.  There  is 
little  salvage  in  large  sheets  of  glass,  as  heat  and  cold  water 
applied  will  crack  them. 

GLASS  WORKS — Glass  is  composed  of  silica  and  alkalis. 
The  principal  ingredients  are  sand,  lime,  soda  ash,  potash, 
cullett,  charcoal,  oxide  of  lead,  kelp,  saltpetre,  and  cobalt. 
The  process  is  as  follows:  Materials  are  mixed  together  to 
form  a  "batch,"  which  is  placed  in  a  fire  clay  pot,  inserted  in 
a  brick-enclosed  furnace  and  heated  by  soft  coal.  When 
the  batch  has  cooled  to  a  temperature  of  about  1,900  degrees 
it  is  ready  to  be  "gathered."  This  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  an  iron  blow  pipe  which  is  inserted  into  the  fire  clay  pot, 
the  molten  glass  clinging  to  the  end  of  the  pipe  resembling 
a  ball.  The  glass  blower  then  blows  through  the  pipe  which 
inflates  the  glass  ball,  soap  bubble  fashion.  The  glass  design 
is  then  placed  in  a  water  jacketed  mold,  after  which  it  goes 
to  a  brick  set  tempering  oven  or  "lehr"  in  order  to  give  the 
glass  the  proper  temper.     See  Annealing  Furnaces. 

GLASS  (Colored) 

Amber  is  produced  by  the  addition  of  carbonaceous  mat- 
ter, i.e.,  grain,  coke,  coal,  or  other  organic  matter.  It  is  also 
produced  by  sulphur  and  certain  sulphites. 

Black  is  produced  by  an  excess  of  coloring  matter  such  as 
manganese,   cobalt,  or   iron. 

Blue  can  be  produced  by  cobalt  or  copper. 

Canary  is  produced  by  uranium. 

Green,  chromium  or  iron  alone  will  produce  green,  though 
it  is  usually  made  by  combining  several  oxides. 

Purple  is  produced  by  manganese  dioxide. 

Red   or  ruby  is   produced   by  gold,   selenium   or   copper, 


229  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

(C  C.  Dominge,  "Live  Articles  on  Special  Hazards,"  The 
Weekly  Underwriter.) 

GLASS,  FROSTED— Made  by  treating  the  glass  in  a  so- 
lution of  hydrofluoric  acid  with  ammonium  carbonate  or  with 
a  sand  blast.  AVI XHD  HO  a^^AJO 

GLASS,  LEADED— The  shop  hazards  are  crifnpin^,' ^cut- 
ting and  soldering.  Gas  mufflers  are  used  for  soldering 
irons.     Glazing  and  painting  in  small  way.        •   i 

GLASS  AND  MIRROR  WORKS— Fire  which  causes 
much'  smoke  ruins  the  glass  by  cracking  and  smoking. 
Smoked  glass,  especially  plate,  is  useless  unless  ground 
down.  This  process  exceeds  the  cost  of  the  glass.  The 
white  glass,  resembling  marble,  is  very  expensive.  Such 
glass  is  ruined  if  smoked  up.  The  grinding  stones  are  made 
of  a  composition,  very  hard,  varying  in  thickness  from  one 
to  two  inches.  They  crack  under  the  action  of  heat.  Cutting 
stones  are  carborundum,  which  also   crack  under  heat. 

GLAUBER  SALT— See  Sulphate  of  Soda. 

GLORY  HOLES  (in  glass  factories)  are  small  brick-en- 
closed circular  furnaces  using  fuel-oil  heat.  These  small 
furnaces  heat  the  glassware  so  as  to  trim  the  edges.  Setting 
and  clearance  should  be  carefully  inspected.  See  Glass 
Works. 

GLOVES — Cotton  Gloves.  Cut  by  hand  or  machine  or 
die  presses;  stitched  on  sewing  machines;  pressed  and 
formed  into  shape  by  steam-heated  glove  forms.  Light 
hazard.  ' 

Men's  gloves,  being  heavier  than  women's,  are  not  so  sus- 
ceptible as  the  latter  and,  if  slightly  damaged,  can  still  be 
used  as  work  gloves,  whereas  women  are  very  loath  to  wear 
any  glove  which  is  spotted  or  defective.  Kid  Glove  stock 
very  susceptible. 

GLUCOSE  occurs  naturally  in  most  fruits,  honey  and 
corn.     Sometimes  made  from  potato  starch. 

GLUE — Gelatine  produced  by  boiling  the  parings  of  hoofs, 
and  also  from  fish.  Factory  hazards  of  boiling  and  evap- 
orating. The  arrangement  of  drying  ovens  and  sulphur  burn- 
ers is  important.  Usually  a  nuisance  to  neighborhood.  A 
class  avoided  by  most  companies. 


GOLD  BEATERS  229 

GLYCERINE  is  formed  when  natural  fats  decompose  by 
treatment  with  alkalis  or  superheated  steam. 

GLYCOL  (or  ethylene  alcohol)  is  a  liquid  between  glycer- 
ine and  alcohol,  the  vapor  being  inflammable. 

GLYOXILINE    contains   gun   cotton,    very   inflammable. 

GOLD  BEATERS— The  first  process  is  to  beat  the  gold 
in  a  "shodder,"  which  consists  of  pieces  of  specially  pre- 
pared skin,  with  which  the  .metal  is  interleaved.  Though  the 
hammer  used  is  14  pounds  in  weight,  the  elasticity  of  the 
skin  causes  a  rejb^ui^id,  ,whicjh,iGpnsiderably  reduces  the  exer- 
tion of  lifting.  :  .j^,   ,   ,>„;,i.,    ,,^  ,. 

The  "shodder"  during  the  beating  process  looks  rather  like 
a  pack  of  cards,  only  a  little  larger,  and  the  "cutch"  into 
which ,  the  pieces  of  gold,  already  thinned  out  to  several 
times  their  original  size,  has  much  the  same  appearance. 
At  this  stage,  however,  much  finer  skins  are  used — so  fine 
that  the  700  or  so  of  which  the  "cutch"  is  composed  make 
a  thickness  of  less  than  one  inch.  After  some  hours  more 
of  beating,  the  gold  leaf  is  again  cut  and  put  between  jyjet 
another  book,  or  pack  of  skins,  known  as  a  "mold." 

The  "mold"  is  beaten  on  for  about  four  hours  with  ham- 
mers of  varying  weights  and  sizes,  according  to  the  stage  of 
the  beatings.  The  transferring  of  the  incredibly  thin  leaves 
of  rich,  yellow  rnetal  from  the  "mold"  to  the  books  bought 
by  the  gilders  is  done  with  a  very  fine  pair  of  clips,  or 
pincers,  made  of  the  lightest  wood. 

The  leaf  is  laid  on  a  cushion  of  soft  leather,  and  then  deli- 
cately cut  to  the  size  of  the  book  with  a  simple-looking  in- 
strument of  .wood  with  sharpened  sides,  known  as  a 
"waggon." 

GOLD  PAINT—See  Bronzing  Liquid. 

GOLDSMITHS— Hazards  of  melting  pots,  metal  work- 
ing, gas  blow  pipes,  polishing. 

GOLF  BALLS — The  core  is  gelatine  or  soap  and  water 
or  an  acid  resembling  sulphuric  in  a  rubber  bag  around 
which  is  wrapped  a  tight  rubber  strip,  then  follows  a  layer 
of  rubber  strips  and  an  outer  shell  of  gutta-percha  and  com- 
position. 

GOODS  IN   HANDS  OF— A  term  signifying  that  goods 


23a  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

belonging  to  one  party  are  in  the  hands  of  another  party,  pre- 
sumably to  be  made  up,  as  for  instance,  cloth  in  the  hands 
of  a  contract  tailor  to  be  made  up  into  garments.  Con- 
sidered desirable  insurance  at  current  rates,  even  in  sweat- 
shops, as  quite  often  it  is  found  that  prior  to  the  fire  most 
of  the  goods  have  been  returned  to  the  owner.  See  Sweat- 
shops. 

GOOSENECK — The  inverted  end  of  a  cast  iron  or  other 
pipe  used  at  the  end  of  vent  pipes  above  the  roof  of  garages, 
etc.,  to  prevent  rain  from  getting  into  the  pipe. 

GOVERNOR — The  part  of  a  machine  which  regulates  the 
speed;  usually  by  two  balls  attached  to  springs  on  a  revolv- 
ing axis.  Increase  in  speed  causes  the  balls  to  fly  outward, 
which  action  regulates  a  valve,  which  in  turn  reduces  the 
amount  of  power  consumed  by  the  machine. 

GRAHAMITE — An  asphalt  used  in  making  cable  insula- 
tion compound.  Contains  carbon  and  has  caused  mine  fires 
in  West  Virginia  and  Utah. 

GRAIN  ELEVATORS  or  Warehouses.  Grain  is  usually 
received  from  barges  or  trains,  elevated  to  top  of  building 
and  dropped  into  receiving  bins,  called  "garners."  Thence 
it  is  cleaned,  mixed,  bleached  and  perhaps  cooked.  From 
the  steam  cooker  the  grain  is  conveyed  in  worm  conveyor 
to  a  hopper,  through  rollers  to  squeeze  out  water,  then  to 
grain  dryer,  and  through  an  exhauster,  where  dust  is  con- 
veyed by  blower  to  a  cyclone. 

The  bins  are  usually  "cribs"  made  of  planking,  and  extend- 
ing from  first  to  top  floor.  When  the  warehouses  are  built 
in  rows  they  are  usually  connected  by  endless  belt  conveyors 
on  which  the  grain  travels  from  one  building  to  another. 
Standard  automatic  drop  doors  should  be  at  each  side  of 
openings  at  fire  walls.  Cleaners  and  other  machinery  are 
usually  located  on  first  floor.  The  "scourers"  (smut  re- 
movers) and  mills  should  have  magnets,  as  they  revolve  at 
high  speed,  as  do  the  "clippers,"  which  clip  the  ends  of 
the  grain.     Sulphur  fumes  are  used  for  bleaching. 

Dryers  are  invariably  steam-heated.  Cleanliness  about  the 
plant  and  machinery  is  essential.  Dust  in  machinery  and 
elevating  machinery  is  more  hazardous  than  that  found  un- 


'  14 ftJT^WJW  GRAIN  FIRES  .I^fim  231 

der  ordinary  atmospheric  conditions  from  handling  of  the 
grain.  The  use  of  open  lights  or  of  unguarded  electric  lights 
lowered  into  bins  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  grain  therein, 
has  often  caused  an  explosion  of  the  dust  in  suspension  in 
the  bin  from  the  open  light  or  the  breaking  of  the  electric 
light  bulb.  All  lights  should  have  guards.  Grain  dust  explodes 
from  sparks  in  grinding  or  milling  machines,  electric  sparks 
from  motors  or  from  static  electricity  generated  by  rapidly- 
moving  belts  and  pulleys.  Fires  are  caused  by  clogged  ele- 
vators (sometimes  called  lofters)  or  grain  accumulating 
around  "strut-boards,"  also  by  friction  gearing  at  machinery, 
journals  resting  on  wood,  cyclones,  wood  pulleys,  sparks 
from  motors  or  railroads.  Dust  spouts  from  cleaners  should 
not  exhaust  on  railroad  side  of  building  as  sparks  from 
locomotives  may  enter  the  spouts. 

Fireproof  grain  storage  tanks  can  be  built  of  terra-cotta 
tile,  circular  in  shape,  furred  on  the  outside  with  tile  2  inches 
in  thickness  and  12  inches  in  height  (the  furring  tile  overlap 
the  inner  tile),  the  whole  being  reinforced  by  pairs  of  steel 
tension  bands  running  through  the  walls  at  frequent  inter- 
vals. The  steel  tension  bands  are  imbedded  in  a  cement 
grouting  and  the  outside  furring  is  applied  with  a  cement 
mortar.    The  foundation  walls  and  base  are  built  of  concrete. 

GRAIN  FIRES — A  great  many  of  the  disastrous  field 
grain  fires  originate  when  threshing  begins.  Fires  in 
threshers  are  mainly  caused  by  static  electricity  in  the  ma- 
chines. 

Suggestion  of  Insurance  Department  of  Washington 

This  hazard  can  be  guarded  against  to  some  extent  by 
keeping  the  top  of  the  machine  open,  allowing  the  smut 
and  dust  to  blow  away.  Have  shovels  and  some  spaded-up 
earth  handy  to  the  feed,  as  shoveling  dirt  into  the  separator 
will  frequently  extinguish  the  fire.  Chemical  extinguishers, 
of  2  and  3  gallon  capacity  are  most  efficient. 

Threshing-machine  engines  should  be  equipped  with  spark 
arresters  and  precautions  should  be  taken*  to  keep  the  same 
clean  and  clear  from  soot.  When  the  engine  is  moving 
from  one  setting  to  another  a  man  with  a  wet  sack  should 
follow   fifty   to   one   hundred   yards   behind   the   machine   in 


nt  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

order  to  extinguish  any  fire  which  may  be  started  by  sparks. 
A  barrel  of  water  with  tub  and  wet  sacks  should  accom- 
pany all  threshing  outfits. 

The  ash  dump  should  be  thoroughly  covered  with  dirt  and 
wet  down  before  leaving  the  setting.  The  engineer  should 
not  be  depended  upon  to  extinguish  dump  fires,  but.  the  grain 
growers  should  be  on  the  ground  and  see  that  all  fires  are 
carefully  extinguished. 

Sparks  from  trains — If  a  field  is  exposed  to  railroad,  hay 
strip  should  be  cut  about  fifty  feet  wide,  and  fire  guards  of 
at  least  ten  feet  of  furrows  plowed  between  railroad  track 
and  the  field.  If  field  is  exposed  to  country  road  where 
there  is  considerable  dry  grass  or  the  road  is  strawed,  "it  is 
well  to  plow  a  fire  guard  between  the  field  and  the  road. 

Old  straw  stacks  which  have  been  burned  at  the  time  of 
plowing  frequently  cause  fires.  Precaution  should  be  taken 
not  to  set  the  machine  or  allow  the  new  straw  pile  to  be 
near  the  burned  butt  of  the  old  straw  pile. 

Back  fire  from  gas  engines — A  number  of  fires  are  caused 
by  back  firing  of  gas  engines.  The  exhaust  should  be 
screened  and  kept  free  from  dust  and  precaution  should  be 
taken  to  have  a  guard  follow  the  gas  engine  when  moving. 
Exhaust  should  be  at  least  five  feet  above  separator  where 
used  on  combines.  A  chemical  fire  extinguisher  should 
always  accompany  the  engine. 

Smoking — Under  no  circumstances  allow  smoking  in  any 
field  at  any  time  after  grain  begins  to  ripen. 

Oily  rags  which  are  used  for  cleaning  up  around  ma- 
chinery should  never  be  thrown  aside,  or  dropped  in  a  field, 
as  is  sometimes  done.  Spontaneous  combustion  may  result! 
All  threshing  machines  should  be  equipped  with  metal  re- 
ceptables  for  oily  rags. 

Fires  in  the  field  are  very  difficult  of  control,  especially 
where  the  straw  is  heavy.  Every  precaution  should  be  taken 
to  eliminate  the  cause.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  fire 
loss  can  be  prevented  if  farmers  will  plow  at  least  ten  feet 
of  furrows  around  stacks  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  cut,  mak- 
ing a  circle  large  enough  to  take  in  both  the  setting  and 
separator  and  leaving  the  engine  outside  the  furrow.     By  use 


GRAIN  STORAGE  WAREHOUSES  233 

of  a  harrow  or  other  means,  the  stubble  should  be  removed 
from  the  ground.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  plow  two  or  three 
furrows  that  do  not  fully  cover  the  stubble.  It  is  little  less 
than  criminal  to  allow  a  fire  to  spread  in  this  manner  when 
it  can  be  largely  controlled  by  following  these  suggestions. 

Fighting  field  fires — The  most  effective  way  is  with  wet 
sacks.  Men  should  go  out  on  all  sides  with  wet  sacks  and 
beat  it  toward  the  centre.  A  barrel  or  tub  of  water  should 
be  put  in  a  machine  or  wagon  and  immediately  driven  to 
the  fire  lighters  so  that  they  can  keep  their  sacks  wet  at 
all  times. 

Fires  in  setting — Grain  sacks  burn  very  slowly,  especially 
when  in  large  piles.  If  work  be  started  immediately  most 
of  the  damage  can  be  prevented.  Straw  should  never  be 
piled  on  sacks  until  after  the  engine  has  been  moved  and  it  is 
made  absolutely  certain  that  no  fire  can  spring  up. 

Combined  harvesters — When  grain  is  harvested  by  a  com- 
bine, the  sack  grain  should  be  taken  care  of  promptly.  There 
is  a  large  and  useless  risk  in  leaving  sacked  grain  scattered 
about  the  field.  Remember,  it  is  your  duty  under  the  policy 
conditions  to  prevent  and  put  out  all  fires  and  save  grain 
after  the  fire.  Do  not  be  misled  by  the  impression  that 
you  should  not  touch  the  grain  until  the  adjuster  arrives. 
You  violate  the  policy  conditions  if  you  do  not  use  due 
diligence  to  take  care  of  it. 

GRAIN  STORAGE  WAREHOUSES— Old  type  brick 
construction  are  lined  with  continuous  planking  of  crib 
construction  forming  bins.  This  peculiar  construction,  to- 
gether with  the  enormous  height  and  almost  total  lack  of 
windows  or  fire  escapes,  makes  this  class  a  hard  one  to  fight 
in  case  of  fire.  Fires  in  this  class  usually  are  of  a  "flash'V 
nature  and  sprinklers  may  not  prove  effective.  Even  though 
heavy  blank  fire  walls  separate  the  various  buildings,  if  much 
water  is  thrown  on  the  grain  the  walls  are  apt  to  bulge  and 
come  down  when  the  wet  grain  expands.  (Lessons  learned 
from  Dows  Store  Fire,  Oct.  14,  1917.)  See  Cleaning  Ma- 
chinery. 

GRANITE— Under  fire  will  explode  and  fly  off  in  frag- 
ments or  it  will  disintegrate  into  a  fine  sand. 


234  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

GRANULATING — Forming  into  grains  or  small  masses; 
separating  molten  substances  by  dropping  or  pouring  into 
moving  water. 

GRAPHITE,  or  Black  Lead,  as  it  is  called,  is  a  form  of 
carbon.  It  is  used  in  lead  pencils.  The  name  "black  lead" 
is  misleading,  for  there  is  no  lead  in  this  substance,  which 
is  purely  carbon  with  a  very  small  amount  of  iron. 

GRAPHITE  (artificial)— Made  from  anthracite  coal,  can 
be  used  as  a  lubricant  in  graphite  grease  form. 

GRAVITY  AND  PRESSURE  SYSTEMS  for  Fuel  Oil- 
Inspectors  should  ascertain  if  gasoline  or  fuel  oil  system  is 
supplied  by  gravity  or  pressure.  The  former  is  not  approved, 
because  the  supply  is  above  the  point  of  use  and  the  supply 
pipes  continually  contain  oil  whether  system  is  in  operation 
or  not.  In  the  latter  case,  the  system  depends  on  a  pump 
to  bring  the  oil  to  the  outlet,  the  supply  pipe  pitched  to 
drain  back  to  supply  tank. 

GRAVITY  SUPPLY  of  water  is  the  best  thing  for  fire 
purposes.  A  reservoir  of  good  capacity  or  a  large  standpipe 
gives  a  reserve  supply  already  stored  at  the  higher  eleva- 
tion and  available  to  meet  any  sudden  large  demand.  Water 
thus  stored  is,  we  may  say,  capital  on  hand,  giving  strength 
to  meet  any  emergency,  whereas,  the  best  pumping  equip- 
ment must  depend  on  the  right  action  promptly  taken  when 
special  demands  arise,  and  there  must  be  very  large  re- 
serve capacity  to  meet  possible  heavy  calls  which  would 
come  but  rarely.     (French.) 

GRAVITY  TANKS— The  usual  requirement  for  sprinkler 
tanks  is  an  elevation  of  20  feet  above  roof  to  give  about  15  lbs. 
pressure  on  top  lines.  Ordinary  sized  tanks  are  made  of 
2y2-inch.  first  grade  dressed  lumber,  or  steel.  Round  hoops 
are  used,  as  flat  hoops  burst  from  rust.  Water  is  kept  from 
freezing  by  steam  coil;  but  at  times  steam  jets  are  used.  Ex- 
posed piping  must  be  packed  frost-proof.  "Tell-tales"  are 
used  to  indicate  height  of  water,  although  mercury  gauges 
may  be  used.  These  latter  are  connected  to  tank  riser  on 
tank  side  of  check  valve  and  installed  inside  of  building. 

GREASE  FIRES  in  hotels  and  restaurants  are  caused  by 
the  ignition  of  grease  which  has  collected  in  the  ventilator 


GROUND  (MADE  GROUND)  235 

pipe  connected  with  large  ranges.  The  grease  slowly  con- 
denses on  the  inside  of  the  pipe  until  it  is  thickly  coated, 
when  it  may  ignite,  and  because  the  pipe  has  not  ample 
clearance  from  combustible  material,  start  a  fire.  Some  au- 
thorities recommend  steam  jets.  Water  thrown  on  grease 
when  afire  will  scatter  the  fire.  Sand  or  even  sawdust  is 
preferable.     See  Oil  Fires. 

GREASE  ERADICATOR— See  Eradicator. 

GREEK  FIRE — A  colored  fire  mixture,  classed  as  fire- 
works. 

GREEN  HIDES— See  Hides. 

GREER  OIL — Made  from  sediment  of  gas  oil,  volatile. 

GRILLAGE — A  sort  of  net  work  of  timbers  laid  cross- 
ing each  other. 

GRILLAGE  FOUNDATIONS— See  Floating  Founda- 
tions. 

GRISSETTES— Plain  triangular  pieces  of  plate  iron  riv- 
eted by  their  vertical  and  horizontal  legs  to  the  sides,  top 
and  bottom  of  box  girders  for  strengthening  their  angles. 

GROCERS— See  Canned  Goods. 

GROIN — An  arch  formed  by  two  segmental  arches  or 
vaults  intersecting  each  other  at  right  angles. 

GROOVED- AND-SPLINED— Planks  grooved^  af  'tbtK 
edges  instead  of  tongue  and  grooved.  When  laid,  a  strijp 
is  driven  in  between  the  planks,  which  takes  the  place  of 
tongue. 

GROUND  (Made  Ground) — Cinders  from  smelting  fur- 
naces or  others  which  contain  a  large  percentage  of  uncon- 
sumed  coal  should  not  be  used  for  filling  under  buildings. 
Plant  of  the  Tottenville  Copper  Co.,  Staten  Island,  April 
14,  1910,  suflFered  a  loss  of  approximately  $20,000.  Fire  dis- 
covered near  the  melting  furnaces  and  was  probably  started 
by  hot  coals  finding  their  way  through  a  crack  in  the  bot- 
tom of  pot  melting  furnaces  or  flue  and  thereby  coming  in 
contact  with  the  unconsumed  coal  in  the  cinders  of  which 
the  filling  under  the  floor  of  the  building  was  composed. 
N.  Y.  Board  of  Underwriters. 

GROUT — The  mortar  poured  into  the  interstices  between 
stones  or  bricks. 


^it  INSPECTION   ANi>    tJNDERWRlTlNG 

GUANO  (manure) — If  wet  is  liable  to  cause  spontaneous 
combustion.  Although  the  hazard  is  very  mild,  inspectors 
should  always  suggest  that  pigeons  and  chickens  be  removed 
from  the  attics  or  cupolas  of  buildings. 

GUARDS — During  war  times  when  incendiaries  are  active, 
the  question  of  sufficient  armed  guards  plays  even  a  more 
important  part  than  the  construction  of  the  building  and  the 
hazards  contained  therein.  The  year  1917,  with  its  heavy 
loss  record,  shows  that  many  plants  were  not  properly 
guarded.     See  War  Conditions. 

GUAYULE— A  form  of  rubber. 

GUNCOTTON— Cotton  soaked  in  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acid  mixture.  The  stronger  the  nitric,  the  more  powerful  the 
guncotton.  A  weak  solution  produces  collodion  or  celluloid. 
See  Nitro-cellulose. 

GUN  METAL  (or  Bronze) — A  compound  of  copper  and 
tin. 

GUN  POWDER — A  mixture  of  potassium  nitrate  or  salt- 
petre, powdered  charcoal  and  sulphur.  The  explosive  quality 
of  gunpowder  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  will  burn  with  great 
rapidity  without  contact  with  air  and  that  in  burning  it 
liberates  large  volumes  of  gas. 

GUTTA-PERCHA— Making  in  sheets,  steam-heated  mix- 
ers and  calenders  are  used.  When  mixed,  beeswax  is  added 
to  keep  the  gutta-percha  from  sticking  to  the  rollers,  and 
oxide  of  iron  and  oxide  of  zinc  is  also  added.  The  sheets 
are  sprinkled  with  talcum  powder  to  prevent  adhering  when 
rolled  up.     Hazard  is  mild.     Gutta-percha  is  rubber. 

GYPSUM-  is  sulphate  of  lime.  Found  in  rock  formation. 
It  is  a  slow  conductor  of  heat,  as  it  contains  in  its  mass  a 
multitude  of  infinitely  fine  air  cells.  Gypsum  manufacturers 
claim  that  three  inches  of  gypsum  properly  applied  to  steel 
or  ironwork  will  hold  the  temperature  of  the  metal  to  about 
300  deg.  F.  when  exposed  to  2,200  deg.  F.  for  a  period  of 
four  hours. 

GYPSUM  ARCH  (Fire  Test)— A  4-inch  panel  flat  arch  of 
gypsum  and  shavings  reinforced  with  Clinton  Wire  Cloth, 
two  inches  cinder  concrete  fill  on  top  and  soffit  of  arch  cov- 
ered with  1^4   inches  of  plaster,   1  part  cement -and  3  parts 


GYPSUM    PLASTER    MILLS  237 

composition  plaster.  Span  of  arch  5  feet  3  inches  center  of 
I  beams.  Furnace  of  12-inch  concrete,  interior  about  9  feet 
above  grating  on  which  the  fire  was  placed.  Heat  averaged 
1,700  degrees  for  4  hours.  The  gypsum  arch  surprised  those 
in  charge  with  its  unexpectedi..ftrength.  The  arch  had  been 
in  place  about  two  weeks.  The  arch  was  intact — the  wire 
mesh  reinforcement  exposed  where  water  from  hose  stream 
washed  the  plaster  ofif,  about  3  inches  remaining  show  re- 
sult of  calcination;  the  lower  flanges  of  I  beams  were  exposed'. 
The  sawdust  showing  in  arch  is  natural  in  color  showing 
heat  did  not  penetrate  through  arch  further  than  one-half 
inch.     No  load  test  applied,  '^ 

Water  Application — ^At  intervals  of  5  minutes  the  follow- 
ing was  applied:  2^-inch  hose  with  1^-inch  nozzle,  100 
pounds  pressure  at  hydrant.  First,  stream  of  one  minute 
duration  at  each  of  two  doors  to  quench  fires,  one  minute 
streams  on  arch,  outside  flushed  for  one  minute,  hose  ap- 
plied three  times  to  interior  of  furnace  to  cool  and  wash 
down. 

GYPSUM  PLASTER  MILLS— Reduce  gypsum  to  the  fin- 
est possible  powder  or  flour  before  passing  it  to  the  cookfers 
or  calcining  kettles  and  then  to  'apply  only  such  degree  ot 
heat  as  will  serve  to  carry  off  such  proportion  of  its  con- 
tained moisture  as  will  prevent  the  voluntary  setting  or 
hardening  of  the  finished  material  when  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere.     Inspect  carefully  before  binding  lines.  ' 


.rrp  a  n»m 


H 


HAIR — Human  hair  stocks  are  not  considered  desirable, 
owing  to  susceptibity  of  stock. 

HAIR  CURLERS  are  made  of  piece  or  scrap  leather,  cut 
and  sewed  with  a  cotton  filling  through  which  runs  a  wire. 
Hazards  are  storage  and  sorting  of  scrap  leather  into  which 
considerable  quantities  of  rubbish  find  their  way;  sewing 
machines,  storage  and  use  of  cotton  batting  or  tow.  Usually 
untidy  appearance. 

HAIR-DRESSERS— Use  alcohol  for  massage  purposes, 
and  in  lamps  for  curling  irons,  electric  curling  irons  and 
hair  dryers,  gas-heated  hair  dryers.  Some  use  benzine  for 
cleaning  hair  goods  and  also  make  cosmetics  on  the  prem- 
ises. 

HAIR  FABRIC  as  used  for  nets  or  braid.  The  hair  is 
reduced  to  a  paste  by  a  solvent,  run  through  an  artificial 
silk  spinner  and  drawn  out  in  threads.  Can  be  braided  or 
woven  like  horse  hair. 

HAIR  GOODS— Manufacturing— The  hair  is  washed  in 
hot  water  with  or  without  disinfectant,  bleached  (usually 
with  peroxide  or  hydrogen),  dried  in  dry  room,  curled  on 
irons,  hand  combed,  or  dyed.  Use  aniline  dyes,  muriatic 
and  sulphuric  acids.     See  Dry  Rooms,  also  Bleaching. 

HAIR  NETS  are  made  by  hand  from  Chinamen's  queues 
or   from   combings   of  women's  hair. 

HAIR  ORNAMENTS  are  usually  made  of  celluloid,  ivory, 
imitation  ivory,  vegetable  ivory  or  bone.  Involves  hazards 
of  celluloid  working  on  power  machinery.     See  Celluloid. 

HALLS — Buildings  used  for  halls'  and  lodge  rooms  are 
usually  of  large,  open  area;  either  frame  or  ordinary  brick 
construction  with  unprotected  floor  openings.  May  have 
miscellaneous  stores  on  ground  floor.  The  hall  proper  usu- 
ally has  a  complete  stage  equipment;  the  stage  constructed 

238 


D;  HARDENING   AND  TEMPERING  239 

of  wood  or  other  light  material;  makeshift  dressing  rooms 
and  an  abundance  of  old  properties  and  scenery  which  accum- 
ulate and  are  rarely  ever  removed.  The  dance  floor  is  highly 
polished,  and  care  should  be  exercised  in  storing  of  oil  and 
floor  mops.  Gangsters  frequent  the  poorer  class  halls. 
Many  fires  are  caused  b}^  smoking.  Fires  once  started  in 
this  class  are  hard  to  extinguish.     Poor  fire  record. 

HALVING — To  notch  together  two  timbers  which  cross 
each  other  so  deeply  that  the  joint  thickness  shall  only  equal 
that  of  one  whole  timber. 

HANGERS — Fixtures  projecting  below  a  ceiling  to  sup- 
port the  journals  of  long  lines  of  shafting,  or  piping. 

HANDKERCHIEFS— Fancy  handkerchiefs  are  mounted 
on  colored  pasteboard  which,  when  wet,  may  stain  and 
thereby  reduce  the  value  of  the  goods.  The  manufacturing 
consists  of  cutting,  sewing,  hemstitching  and  ironing.  Classed 
as  white  goods  manufacturing.  The  nature  of  the  business 
requires  cleanliness. 

HARD  COAL  is  almost  wholly  composed  of  carbon. 

HARDWARE — Heavy  hardware  stocks  are  mostly  un- 
polished wares  and  are  preferable  to  light  hardware,  which 
is  polished  and  therefore  more  susceptible  to  rust  from 
moisture. 

HARD  WOODS— Generally  classed  as  those  cut  from 
broad-leaved  trees.  Underwriters  prefer  hardwood  and  write 
larger  lines  than  on  soft  woods.     See  Soft  Woods. 

HARDENING  AND  TEMPERING— Known  as  Heat 
Treatment  Process  in  machine-shops;  consists  of  hardening 
and  tempering  tool  steel.  The  steel  is  first  placed  in  gas- 
heated  hardening  ovens  until  a  certain  temperature  is 
reached  and  then  plunged  into  an  oil  trough  with  agitator. 
The  oil  used  is  principally  fish  oil,  flashing  at  about  550 
deg.  F.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  furnace  is 
properly  set. 

HARNESS-MAKERS— Work  consists  of  stuffing  collars, 
sewing  and  oiling  harness.  Tow,  straw,  hair,  or  hay  may  be 
used  as  stuffing  material. 

HARNESS  OIL  is  mainly  neatsfoot  oil. 

HARTIN — A  resin  obtained  from  lignite. 


240;  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

HARTITE— A  fossil  resin  found  in  coal  beds. 

HARTSHORN— See  Ammonia. 

HATCHWAY — A  horizontal  opening  in  a  floor.  Should 
be  automatically  trapped  in  order  to  prevent  fire  from  gain-^ 
ing  access  to  other  floors.     See  Shafts. 

HATS  (FELT) — Busiest  season  is  summer.  Made  of  wool 
or  fur  felt.  The  hats  are  shaped  from  the  felt  in  gas  or 
steam-heated  presses  over  plaster  moulds,  then  laured  (put- 
ting on  the  nap)  by  brushing  the  felt  so  that  the  hair  lays 
in  one  direction  and  greasing  with  a  cloth  pad  which  is 
applied  until  a  gloss  is  obtained.  The  lining  is  then  put  in. 
Heating  of  lauring  stoves  important,  gas  being  principally 
used  but  sometimes  kerosene  oil. 

Buckram  frames  for  hats  are  sized  with  shellac,  varnished 
and  glued.     See  Buckram. 

HAT  STOCKS  are  very  susceptible.  Derby  and  other 
stiff  hats  are  practically  ruined  as  far  as  sale  is  concerned 
if  damaged  by  water  or  smoke.  Soft  hats  are  not  so  easily 
damaged.     Straw  hats  are  usually  a  total  loss. 

HATS  (STRAW)— Straw  braiding  is  usually  a  separate 
business.  In  making  hats,  the  braided  straw  is  sewn  by  ma^ 
chinery  and  blocked,  i.  e.,  moistened,  formed  over  plaster  or 
spelter  moulds  and  pressed  in  gas  or  steam-heated  presses, 
then  bleached  or  dyed,  varnished  or  shellaced  and  dried. 
Bleaching  is  done  by  peroxide  of  sodium  or  sulphur  fumes. 
Glue  or  shellac  is  used  for  sizing.  Blocking  presses  require 
several  rubber  tube  gas  connections.  There  may  also  be  a 
foundry  for  making  spelter  moulds.  Paper  boxes  may  also 
be  made  on  the  premises.  The  arrangement  of  glue  kettles 
and  construction  of  dry  rooms  and  bleaching  rooms  are  most 
important  hazards.     See  Bleaching,  Dry  Rooms,  Sulphur. 

HATTERS'  FURS— See  Furs. 

HATTERS'  SUPPLIES— Stock  consists  of  embossed  or 
plain  lining  or  those  stamped  with  maker's  name,  sweat 
bands  and  trimmings.  Use  rubber  cement  for  cementing 
leather,  gas  crimpers  for  linings,  embossing  presses  and  sten- 
ciling presses. 

HAUNCHES— The  parts  of  an  arch  from  the  skewback 
to  the  keystone. 


HAY  241 

HAY — Spontaneous  combustion  in  sweating  hay  is  one  of 
the  chief  causes  of  the  large  barn  loss.  According  to  the 
Ohio  bulletin,  spontaneous  combustion  in  hay  originates  in 
the  following  manner: 

"The  cells  in  hay  continue  to  live  and  breathe  for  some 
time  after  it  is  cut,  and  they  alone  in  a  close  mow,  heat  the 
hay  to  a  temperature  of  132  deg.  F.  Added  to  this  is  the 
heat  from  the  microscopic  spores  of  fungi  which  continue 
to  grow  in  the  blades  of  hay  during  its  fermentation,  the 
heat  created  by  the  development  of  the  hay  seeds  and  the 
heat  of  the  sun  upon  the  roof.  These  three  causes,  acting 
together,  may  heat  closely  packed  hay  stored  where  there  is 
no  ventilation  to  a  temperature  of  212  deg.  F.  The  hay  then 
begins  to  char;  the  charcoal  formed  absorbs  oxygen  and 
the  mass  grows  still  hotter.  The  hay  reaches  265  deg.  F., 
and  then  the  mass  blazes.  Bran,  grain  and  silo  material 
may  ignite  spontaneously  if  placed  under  similar  conditions." 

HAY  AND  FEED  STORES— Generally  crowded  to  the 
doors  with  baled  hay  with  more  or  less  of  it  loosely  scat- 
tered about.  Smoking  prohibited.  Method  of  heating  and 
lighting  important.    Dust  hazard  is  mild. 

HAZARD — The  word  '"hazard,"  as  applied  to  fire  insurance, 
carries  the  same  meaning  as  in  ordinary  usage,  and  means 
the  point  of  danger,  or  to  be  in  jeopardy  or  danger.  The  fire 
hazard  is  the  inherent  quality  or  surrounding  of  a  risk  or 
piece  of  property  which  makes  it  more  or  less  liable  to  con- 
tagion or  destruction  by  fire.  Powder  or  gasoline  is  hazard- 
ous. Frame  dwellings  are  more  hazardous  than  steel  struc- 
tures. The  risk  is  the  thing  insured,  the  hazard  is  the  danger 
which  surrounds  the  risk.  (Fire  Facts,  issued  by  Washing- 
ton Surveying  and  Rating  Bureau.)     See  Risk. 

HAZARD,  PHYSICAL — Any  feature  of  a  risk  which  af- 
fects the  risk,  either  structurally  or  from  conditions  therein. 

H.  C.  TYPE  AND  PLATE  CLEANING  FLUID— A  ben- 
zine substitute  acceptable  to  underwriters  as  not  dangerous. 

HEADER  BEAM — (Also  see  Chimney  Construction).  The 
beam  on  which  is  fastened  the  stirrups  for  beam  supports 
or  into  which  is  framed  the  joist  It  is  also  used  in  floor 
opening  construction. 


242  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

HEADER  COURSE— A  course  of  brick  laid  with  end  out- 
ward in  wall  to  form  a  bond.  At  least  every  sixth  course  in 
brick  wall  should  be  a  header  course. 

HEAT  is  a  physical  property  obtained  by  mechanical 
energy;  by  passing  an  electrical  current  through  a  substance; 
from  the  sun,  or  by  chemical  means. 

HEATERS   (Water  Heaters)— The  gas  flame  flaring  out,, 
caused  by  wind   blowing  down  vent   pipe,  has  caused   fires.'^ 
Vents   should  be   carried   above   roof  and   be   equipped  with 
wind  deflector.     Vents  should  never  terminate  in  an  attic  or 
concealed  space — the  heat  is  apt  to  bank  up  and  cause  fire; 
If  in  contact  with  wood,  the  continued  heat,  while  even  at?^ 
low  temperatures,  carbonizes  the  wood  which  is  apt  to  burst 
into  flame. 

HEATING  APPARATUS— If  in  doubt  as  to  whether  it  is 
unsafe  or  not,  place  the  hand  on  the  combustible  material 
nearest  the  heater.  If  the  hand  cannot  remain  because  of 
the  heat,  be  ,on  the  safe  side  and  consider  it  unsafe. 

HEATING,  COMBINATION  SPRINKLER  HEATING 
SYSTEMS— See  Sprinkler  and  Heating  Systems. 

HEAVY  OIL— The  fractional  distillate  obtained  from  coal 
tar  between  225  to  270  deg.  C.     Inflammable.        -^^iAi^^i; 

HEELBALL — Composition  of  lamp-black  and  wax!.  USsed 
by  shoemakers.     Manufacturing  process  is  hazardous. 

HEMSTITCHING  (manufacturing),  employ  ordinary  sew- 
ing machines  and  gas-heated  crimpers,  which  usually  have 
rubber  tube  connections. 

HEIGHT  OF  A  BUILDING  is  the  distance  from  the  curb 
or  street  level  to  the  highest  point  of  the  roof  in  case  of  flat 
roofs,  or  the  average  height  of  the  gables  in  case  of  roofs 
having  a  pitch  of  more  than  20  degrees.  The  height  of  a 
building  seriously  afifects  its  insurance.  It  is  very  difficult  tp 
fight  fires  "up  in  the  air"  as  the  ordinary  fire  steamer  or 
tower  is  not  designed  for  excessive  height.  In  very  high 
buildings  inside  standpipes  are  relied  on  for  furnishing  water 
for  extinguishing  purposes.     (N.  F.  P.  A.) 

HEIGHTS  AND  AREAS  IN  FACTORY  BUILDINGS— 
Factory  buildings  of  excessive  height  and  area  have  long 
been   recognized   by  underwriting   organizations   as   a   grave 


omrmv.        ^^^^  ^^^ 

danger  to  life  and  property,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  co4-' 
trolling  fires  in  them.  It  is  logical  to  assume  that  the  men' 
best  fitted  to  determine  safe  limits  of  heights  and  areas  are 
the  men  who  have  made  a  life  work  of  combating  fires  under 
all  conditions  of  weather  and  hazard.  The  following  is  the 
average  of  the  replies  of  50  fire  chiefs  throughout  the  country. 

Area  between 
fire  walls 

Type  of  building  Stories     in  sq.  ft. 

Brick  or  joisted  construction,  not  sprinklered.3.2  5,200 

F.   P.  construction,  not  sprinklered 5.3  9,300 

Brick  or  joisted  construction,   sprinklered 4.8  10,500 

F.    P.   Sprinklered 7.5  21,600 

(From  booklet,  Ira  H.  Woolson.) 

HEMP — Hemp  without  a  prefix  such  as  manila  hemp,  sisal 
hemp,  etc.,  is  generally  understood  to  mean  the  fibres  from 
the  true  hemp  plant.  The  basis  of  all  vegetable  fibres  is  to  be 
found  in  cellulose;  a  compound  belonging  to  a  class  of  nat- 
urally occurring  substances  known  as  carbohydrates.  Ordi- 
nary hemp  is  classed  as  a  soft  fibre  which  must  be  handled 
at  once,  if  damaged,  if  any  salvage  is  to  be  expected.  From 
the  underwriting  standpoint,  fibres  may  be  divided  into  two 
principal  classes,  i.  e.,  hard  and  soft  fibres.  Hard  fibres,  by 
virtue  of  their  construction,  do  not  absorb  water  rapidly 
when  immersed  and  do  not  heat  or  decompose  as  rapidly  as 
do  the  soft  fibres.  Hemp  requires  about  110  days  for  its 
growth,  and  is  cut  either  by  hand  or  special  machinery.  The 
hemp  stalks  are  dried,  set  in  shooks  and  sometimes  bundled 
and  stacked.  Later  the  shooks  or  stacks  are  opened  and  the 
hemp  again  spread  out  for  exposure  to  action  of  the  dew, 
frost,  and  sun,  which  dissolves  the  gums  holding  the  filaments  ^ 
together  and  makes  the  inner  woody  stem  dry  and  causes  it, 
to  fall  away  readily  when  passed  through  the  breaker.  Hemp 
exposed  to  a  heat  of  300  degrees  practically  destroys  the 
fibre.  Fibres  in  storage  warehouses,  if  thoroughly  wet  down 
after  a  fire,  have  been  known  to  cause  the  collapse  of  the 
building  walls  due  to  the  swelling  and  expansion  of  the  fibre 
from  the  excessive  absorption  of  water.    Large  masses  of  this 


244  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

fibre,  when  wet,  heat  rapidly  and  soon  decay,  and  unless 
steps  are  taken  at  once,  very  little  or  no  salvage  can  be  ef- 
fected. Authorities  seem  to  be  divided  as  to  whether  fibres 
are  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion,  although  the  follow- 
ing authorities  are  quoted  as  follows: 

Hemp,  especially  if  gathered  in  wet  seasons,  is  very  liable 
to  get  heated.  Experience  at  Maysville,  Kentucky,  indicated 
that  wet  hemp  is  a  very  dangerous  neighbor.  Many  of  the 
fires  that  occurred  there  in  hemp  could  not  be  satisfactorily 
traced  to  any  other  cause  than  spontaneous  burning.  (Harris' 
Ins.  Chemistry.) 

Hemp  in  a  pure  and  thoroughly  dry  condition  may  attain 
such  a  degree  of  desiccation,  under  the  influence  of  moderate 
warmth,  the  radiant  heat  from  a  stove  or  piping,  and  in  sum- 
mer from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  that  pyrophoric  carbon  is 
formed,  and  the  mass  takes  fire.  (Von  Schwartz  in  "Fire 
and  Explosion  Risks." — (D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.)  ^' 

T.  E.  Sears,  an  authority  on  fibres,  states  that  as  far  as  he 
could  learn,  no  positive  proof  has  ever  been  given  that  fibres 
are  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion.  Hemp  mills  as  a 
class,  are  not  very  desirable  insurance.  Hemp  in  the  field 
is  a  rather  new  feature  for  underwriters  and  very  little  in- 
formation is  available,  owing  to  the  lack  of  experience  with 
this  class.  Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  California, 
perhaps  only  the  tall-growing  single-stalk  variety  can  be 
grown.  The  tariff  rate  of  6  per  cent,  in  some  locations  is 
charged  and  this  would  indicate  somewhat  the  hazard  in- 
volved. Aside  from  the  spontaneous  combustion  (probable) 
hazard,  inspectors  should  see  that  the  fields  are  "cleared  of 
all  stubble  or  foul  stuff  which  would  permit  a  fire  to  com- 
municate from  stack  to  stack;  find  out  whether  the  insurance 
also  covers  in  the  factory  or  shredding  building;  carefully 
note  all  exposing  buildings  and  distance  from  the  railroad 
tracks  on  account  of  sparks  from  locomotive;  gasoline  trac- 
tors used  in  the  fields;  lightning,  and  smoking  by  the  em- 
ployes.    See  Fibres. 

HEMP  KURDS — Formerly  a  waste  product,  is  now  being 
used  in  paper  making. 

HENEQUEN— See  Fibres. 


1^  P  HIDES   AND  SKINS  24& 

HERAKLIN — Used  for  blasting  purposes;  explosive. 
1  HERROLIN — A  liquid  used  in  the  gasoline  motor  in- 
dustry. It  is  diluted  with  gasoline  to  make  the  gasoline 
vapor  more  explosive.  It  is  really  nothing  more  than  highly 
purified  and  distilled  gasoline  v^hich  seems  to  regenerate 
other  gasoline  when  mixed. 

HELICAL  STAIRWAY— A  spiral  stairway. 

HIDES  AND  SKINS  (T.  O.  Gildersleeve)— The  name 
I'-hides"  is  commonly  given  to  the  undressed  skins  of  the 
large  domestic  animals,  such  as  oxen,  horses,  etc.,  while 
those  of  the  smaller  animals  are  called  skins.     See  Tear-offs. 

Green  Hides  are  salted  and  dried.  The  salt  acts  as 
a  preservative,  keeping  the  albumen  inactive.  The  dried 
hides  are  dried  in  open  air  and  the  albumen  becomes  in- 
active and  in  both  cases  they  can  be  kept  for  a  long  time. 
They  are  receiving  today  in  New  York  City  hides  from  Japan 
and  China.     (Considered  good  insurance.) 

If  Salt  Hides  become  wet,  the  water  washes  out  the 
preserving  quality  or  salt  and  the  albumen  becomes  active 
and  they  decompose  very  soon  if  not  resaltcd,  especially  in 
hot  weather.     (Considered  good  insurance.) 

Dry  Hides  wet  with  water  become  soft  and  the  albumen 
becomes  active  and  will  decompose  very  soon  if  not  dried 
klmost  immediately.  The  actual  loss  in  both  cases,  salt  and 
dry,  should    be  small.     (Considered  good  insurance.) 

Dxessed  Hides  such  as  harness  and  sole  leather  un- 
dergo various  processes  in  tanning  and  are  more  susceptible 
to  fire  damage  on  account  of  the  oils  used  in  finishing.  Water 
is  apt  to  cause  stains,  but  if  immediately  refinished  the  sal- 
vage should  be  large.     (Not  as  good  as  undressed  hides.) 

Pickled  Hides  (brine  solution)  are  skivers  and  thin 
hides.  If  dried  will  crack  and  break.  These-  are  shipped  in 
brine  in  barrels.     (Good  insurance.)  >^0fii1    . 

Undressed  Hides  are  not  as  susceptible  to  fire  as 
dressed  hides,  but  if  exposed  to  excessive  heat  they  become 
so  hard  that  they  will  crack  and  break.  (Not  so  good  as 
pickled  hides.) 

Water  would  not  have  any  bad  effect  on  hides  in  barrels 
unless  the  barrels  are  open,  then  it  would  weaken  the  brine 


24«  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

and  possibly  discolor  the  top  hides.  Fire  possibly  would  not 
effect  stock  in  closed  barrels,  and  if  open  would  only  dam- 
age the  top  hides  if  salvaged  at  once.  Should  fire  burst  the 
barrels  a  large  loss  may  result.  Water  has  a  damaging  effect 
on  skins,  especially  if  not  dried  at  once. 

HIGH  PRESSURE  STEAM— Most  rating  bureaus  con- 
sider IS  lbs.  to  the  square  inch  as  high  pressure.  Below  this 
pressure  they  are  classed  as  low.  Sometimes  the  safety  valve 
can  be  adjusted  so  that  when  15  lbs.  is  exceeded  the  steani 
will  blow  off. 

HIGH  PRESSURE  SYSTEM  (New  York  City)— This  sys- 
tem is  supplied  by  pumps.  Six  of  5,000  gallons  capacity  each, 
in  each  Oliver  and  Gansevoort  street  pumping  station.  Ag 
soon  as  the  alarm  of  fire  is  soupded  the  pumps  are  started 
and  125  lbs.  pressure  is  immediately  ready.  By  'phoning  the 
pumping  station,  this  pressure  is  increased  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  alarm,  in  25-lb.  installments  until  a  maximum 
of  500  lbs.  is  reached.     See  Water  Mains. 

HIGH  WINES— See  Distilleries. 

HIP  ROOF — One  that  slopes  four  ways,  thus  forming  an^ 
gles  called  hips. 

HIPS — Pieces  of  timber  placed  in  an  inclined  position  at 
the  corners  or  angles  of  a  roof. 

HOARDING — A  temporary  closed  fence  of  boards  placed 
around  a   building  in   course   of  construction. 

HOG-CHAIN  BEAM— A  beam  strengthened  by  tie-rods 
under  same  sprung  from  end  to  end  of  beam,  with  straining 
posts  below,  under  which  passes  the  tie-rods.  Used  to  pre- 
vent bending  or  buckling. 

HOLD  DUST  (a  substitute  for  sawdust)— Composed  of 
sawdust  and  wood  fibre  treated  with  a  solution  of  ammonium 
phosphate  in  dilute  triatonic  alcohol,  certain  salts,  a  disin- 
fectant, traces  of  iron  and  aniline  coloring  matter.  Will 
not  burn  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

HOLLOW  FINISH— Sheathing,  lath  and  plaster,  etc.,  for 
walls,  ceilings  or  partitions,  which  allow  a  hollow  space  back 
of  same. 

HOLLOW  METAL  DOORS  AND  TRIM— These  are 
considered  next  in  merit  to  standard  fire  doors,  which  are 


HOOD  147 

too  ungainly  to  be  used  in  office  buildings.  Some  time  ago 
a  fire  on  the  26th  floor  of  the  Singer  Building,  New  York 
City,  completely  burned  out  the  entire  contents  of  a  room 
used  for  the  storage  of  old  records;  but  was  confined  to  the 
room  by  the  hollow  metal  door. 

HOLLOW  SQUARE— A  group  of  adjoining  or  adjacent 
buildings  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  square  with  a  yard  or 
court  in  center.  Fires  communicate  through  the  windows  or 
other  openings  (unless  protected)  at  the  angles  formed  by 
the  buildings. 

HOOD — A  metal  canopy  placed  over  a  gas  range,  coal 
range,  retort  or  other  stove  to  catch  vapors,  smoke  or  gasses 
and  pass  them  out  of  the  buildings  through  a  vent  pipe. 
Hoods,  if  covered  with  two  inches  of  asbestos,  may  be  placed 
not  less  than  nine  inches  below  a  combustible  ceiling.  If 
without  asbestos  covering,  the  distance  should  be  eighteen 
inches.     See  Ranges. 

HOOPS  FOR  SPRINKLER  TANKS  should  be  round. 
The  flat  hoops  rust,  and  their  condition  cannot  be  ascertained 
until  they  rust  through. 

HOPPER — A  container  such  as  a  bin  with  spout,  used  for 
feeding  grain,  etc.,  to  mills  or  machinery.  A  temporary  stor- 
age  bin. 

HOPS  are  hand  piclced  and  dried  in  kilns  on  screen  floor 
over  furnace  having  a  pan  of  sulphur  on  top.  When  baled, 
and  in  warehouses,  are  difficult  to  burn.  When  wet,  will  ex- 
pand sufficiently  to  burst  the  walls  of  buildings.  Susceptible 
to  smoke  or  water  damage. 

HORIZONTAL  EXITS — Openings  or  means  of  egress 
from  a  floor  to  the  corresponding  floor  of  an  adjoining  build- 
ing by  means  of  a  doorway  cut  through  a  fire  wall  and  pro- 
tected by  standard  fire  doors.     See  Fire  Exit  Partition. 

HORN  BLACK  or  animal  black  is  almost  identical  with 
bone  black,  but  is  generally  in  a  more  finely,  divided  form. 
Animal  refuse,  albumen,  gelatine,  horn  hoof  shavings,  etc., 
are  subjected  to  dry  distillation  in  a  still  or  retort;  the  black 
carbonaceous  mass  which  is  left  is  washed  with  water  and 
powdered  in  a  mill.  Used  for  printers'  ink,  blackening,  and 
the  cheaper  grade  of  varnishes  and  paint. 


t4a  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

HORN  AND  FERTILIZER  FACTORY— Concerns  some- 
times  use  celluloid  scrap.  This  is  mixed  indiscriminately  with 
the  horn,  etc.,  and  ground  by  the  "pressed  horn  and  meal 
worker,"  then  placed  in  dryers.  While  the  temperature  will 
not  ignite  the  horn,  dust  it  readily  fires  celluloid  dust  and  fre- 
quent fires  are  likely  to  occur. 

HORSE  OIL— Obtained  by  boiling  down  flesh  and  fat; 
used  in  making  palm  or  rosin  soap. 

HORSE-POWER— This  term  is  intended  to  express  the 
amount  of  work  that  a  power  plant  will  do.  The  word  was 
coined  by  James  Watt,  the  father  of  the  steam  engine.  He 
finally  decided  that  a  dray  horse  was  capable  of  doing  33,000 
foot-pounds  of  work  in  one  minute,  and  so  this  amount  of 
work  he  called  a  horse-power.  •  Example — Horse  pulling  3,300 
pounds  vertically  upward  10  feet  in  one  minute  exerts  one 
horse-power.     See  Foot-Pound. 

HORSES — The  sloping  timbers  which  carry  the  steps  in 
a  staircase. 

HORSES  AND  OTHER  LIVE  STOCK— The  policy  form 
usually  limits  the  amount  payable  in  case  of  loss  for  each 
animal;  thus,  $2,000  on  horses,  in  case  of  loss,  no  one  horse 
to  be  valued  at  over  $200.  Numerous  losses  have  been  paid 
where  unscrupulous  dealers  have  substituted  old  "skates" 
for  good  stock  and  then  set  fire  to  the  stable.  After  a  serious 
fire  it  is  hard  to  determine  the  true  value  of  stock.  The 
bodies  of  horses  which  have  been  killed  in  a  fire  become 
bloated.  This,  and  the  fact  that  all  the  hair  and  skin  have 
been  burned  off,  make  it  almost  impossible  to  judge  the 
value  of  the  animal.     See  Stables.  /  -----^  • 

HORSES  STABLED  ABOVE  GRADE— See  Stablest 

HOSE — In  the  manufacture  of  fabric-covered  rubber  hosci 
the  hazards  are  those  of  rubber  working  with  vulcanizing, 
weaving  and  covering.  If  covered  with  flexible  metal,  there 
is  a  machine  shop  hazard,  with  metal  spinning.  This  hose  is 
vulcanized  in  a  very  long  vulcanizer  sometimes  30  feet  lojjg. 
See  Rubber  Works.  It  ., 

HOSE  STREAMS  (Effective  height  of),  according  to  E. 
V.  French. 


HOSPITALS 

249 

1^-inch 

Limit  of  height, 

with  moderate  wind 

smooth  nozzl 

e     With  100  lbs. 

With  80  lbs. 

With  60  lbs. 

Length  of  hose       at  hydrant 

at 

hydrant 

at  hydrant 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

100 

88 

82 

67 

200 

82 

72 

59 

300 

I!  ?.i  j«->y^  r. 

65 

52 

400 

m^q.p'io^ 

58 

44 

500      Sni 

ij^pOO  13  ft  i  52 

52 

40 

700     ^'^'' 

'^^'  "    53 

43 

33 

1,000 

42 

34 

25 

HOSIERY  AND  UNDERWEAR  STOCKS— Usually  in 
pasteboard  boxes.  Woolens  are  subject  to  shrinkage  or  stain 
if  wet.    Cotton  goods  can  be  washed  and  salvaged. 

HOSPITALS — Usually  consist  of  a  group  of  ordinary 
constructed  brick  buildings  with  frame  roof  structures  or 
cupolas,  and  freely  communicating,  and  with  unprotected 
floor  openings,  especially  stair  wells.  Fire  hazards  are  laun- 
dries, kitchens,  paint  and  carpenter  shops,  medicines  or  oils 
boiling  over  on  stoves,  storage  of  drugs  and  chemicals,  in- 
cluding ether,  Columbian  spirits  and  alcohol,  and  other  com- 
mon hazards.  In  cities,  hospitals  have  fire  drills  of. all  em- 
ployees, including  nurses  and  staff,  with  fire  alarm  systems 
and  standpipes  with  hose. 

HOSTILE  FIRE  is  one  that  leaves  its  seat  of  origin.  See 
Friendly  Fire.  v         .  i 

HOT  BLAST— Is  a  term  used, in  "conflagrations.  In  the 
Chicago  fire,  the  fire  started  outside  the  congested  district, 
developed  into  hot-blast  form,  then  swept  through  and  be- 
yond the  congested  district,  and  finally  burned  out  for  lack  of 
fuel.  These  fires  cannot  be  stopped  by  firemen  while  the 
wind  holds  out,  but  they  have  been  checked  and  deflected  up- 
wards by  barriers  consisting  of  two  or  more  fire  walls,  or 
their  equivalent,  with  a  free  air  space  between  as  in  the  case 
of  fires  out  of  control,  which  have  been  stopped  by  a  mere 
alley,  with  buildings  fully  shuttered  on  each  side.  (From 
paper  by  Albert  Blauvelt,  Before  American  Society  of  Me- 
chanical Engineers.)     See  Flames;  see  Conflagration  Blast. 

HOTELS,   especially   of  the   better   class,   are   considered 


^0  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

good  risks.  This  is  due  mainly  to  the  superior  management 
and  careful  scrutiny  given  by  all  in  charge,  day  and  night. 
As  a  general  rule  the  construction  of  the  non-fireproof  hotel 
is  not  so  good  on  account  of  the  large  well-holes,  furred 
walls,  and  poorly  protected  floor  openings.  They  are  in- 
spected regularly  by  city  departments  on  account  of  the  lives 
at  stake,  and  the  fire  fighting  equipment  is  usually  in  good 
order.  Fires  have  been  caused  by  chefs  pouring  grease  on 
top  of  ranges  for  the  purpose  of  hastening  cooking  by  getting 
top  of  range  red  hot.  See  Apartment  Hotel;  also  Seashore 
Hotels. 

HOT  HOUSES  connected  to  florist  shops,  fair  risks  if 
heating  apparatus  is  safe. 

HOUSEHOLD  INVENTIONS— Consist  of  kitchen  uten- 
sils of  tin,  aluminum,  enamelled,  plated  and  japanned  ware. 
Hazards  include  wood  and  metal  working  with  japanning  by 
spraying  or  dipping.    Fire  record  df  class  is  poor. 

HOUSEKEEPING— This  expression  is  used  to  denote  the 
care  and  cleanliness  about  a  plant.     See  Dust. 

HOUSE  WRECKERS  OR  MOVERS— Equipment  con- 
sists of  ropes,  rigging,  tackle,  lubricating  oils,  second-hand 
lumber,  shoring  timbers,  building  materials. 

HOUSINGS — In  roller  mills,  the  vertical  supports  for  the 
boxes  in  which  the  journals  revolve. 

HUMIDOR — A  box  or  room  (usually  of  wood),  in  which 
cigars  are  kept  moist  by  using  wet  sawdust  on  the  floor  or 
by  sprinkling  water  on  the  floor. 

HYDRANT  PRESSURES  according  to  E.  V.  French. 
The  following  table  shows  the  hydrant  pressures  needed 
with  various   length?  of  hose   to   discharge  250  gallons   per 
minute  through  a  1^-inch  nozzle: 

Length  of  Hose  Pressure  at  Hydrant 

100  feet  63  lbs. 

200    "  77   " 

300    "  92    " 

400    "  106    " 

500    "  120   " 

700    "  149   " 

1000    "  192   " 


HYDRODYNAMICS  251 

HYDRANTS — The  approved  fire  hydrant  or  fire  plug  is  so 
constructed  that  when  the  valve  is  closed  by  raising  a  flange 
on  the  rod  all  the  water  remaining  in  the  hydrant  is  allowed 
to  escape  through  an  opening  at  the  bottom  where  it  runs  to 
waste  into  the  ground,  through  the  open  lower  end  of  the 
frost  jacket.  This  jacket  is  a  hollow  cast-iron  cylinder  sur- 
rounding the  working  parts  of  the  hydrant.  Without  this 
arrangement,  water  remaining  in  the  hydrant  would  freeze 
and  burst  the  hydrant.  Upon  the  approach  of  winter  all 
hydrants  should  be  tested  for  proper  draining  to  prevent 
freezing. 

HYDRATE  composed  of  salt,  oxide  or  acid  with  water. 

HYDRAULICS  is  the  science  of  the  flow  of  water 
through  pipes  and  the  raising  of  water  to  various  heights. 

HYDROCARBON  is  a  liquid  composed  of  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen. Flashes  at  zero  F.  Classed  as  inflammable.  Hydro- 
carbons: all  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen. 

HYDRO-CARBON  OIL  is  obtained  from  crude  pe- 
troleum and  from  the  tar  obtained  from  bituminous  coal. 
Flash  200-500  deg.  F. 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  (muriatic)— A  corrosive  liquid 
formed  by  combining  hydrogen  with  chlorine.  Not  inflam- 
mable.   See  Acids.    Usually  kept  in  carboys. 

HYDROCYANIC  ACID— A  colorless,  volatile,  very  in- 
flammable liquid,  used  for  fumigating  to  destroy  the  flour 
moth  in  flour  mills. 

HYDRODYNAMICS— There  are  four  important  but 
simple  considerations  which  must  be  kept  in  mind  for  under- 
standing the  dynamics  of  water  pressure.  First,  water,  like 
other  liquids,  exerts  equal  pressure  in  all  directions  owing  to 
the  fact  that  its  molecules  move  freely  over  and  upon  each 
other.  Pressure  exerted  upon  water  in  a  hollow  ball  with 
numerous  perforations  would  expel  the  water  from  all  the 
perforations  with  equal  force.  This,  it  need  not  be  explained, 
is  the  principal  of  the  hydraulic  press,  where  the  pressure 
of  a  small  pipe  of  water  exerted  over  a  wide  surface  shows 
the  same  pressure  for  every  square  inch  of  such  wider  sur- 
face. It  is  the  principle  upon  which  an  inch  pipe  inserted 
jtightly  in  a  barrel  full  of  water  will  burst  the  barrel  when 


252  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

the  water  reaches  a  certain  height  in  the  pipe,  although  the 
weight  of  water  in  the  pipe  may  be  trifling.  Secondly,  water 
like  any  solid,  has  a  known  weight  for  a  given  quantity. 
Third,  water  will  flow  with  less  or  greater  velocity  through 
pipes  according  to  the  pressure  exerted  upon  it,  which  pres- 
sure may  be  simply  that  of  its  own  weight,  due  to  its  eleva- 
tion above  the  point  of  escape  from  the  stored  body  or  the 
pressure  exerted  by  a  force  pump.  Fourth,  water,  like  a  solid 
in  motion,  is  subject  to  the  retardant  effect  of  friction  of  its 
surface  against  the  surfaces  rubbed  against.  Consequently 
water  flowing  through  a  pipe  is  retarded  in  its  flow  by  the 
friction  of  its  particles  on  the  sides  of  the  pipes  what  is 
known  as  "skin  friction,"  naturally  greater  in  rough  interiors 
of  pipes  than  in  new,  smooth  ones.  (From  lecture  F.  C. 
Moore.) 

HYDROFLUORIC  ACID— A  fuming  corrosive  liquid 
made  by  treating  a  mineral,  known  as  flourspar,  flourite 
or  calcium  flouride  with  sulphuric  acid.     (See  Etching  Acid.) 

HYDROGEN,  the  lighest  of  all  gases,  burns  with  a  pale, 
blue  flame,  giving  out  much  heat.  Hydrogen  gas  is  inflam- 
mable. 

HYDROSTATICS  is  the  science  which  treats  of  quiet 
water  or  water  at  rest  in  a  reservoir. 


jr>rrnq 


I 

I  BEAM — An  iron  or  steel  beam,  the  cross  section  or  end 
view  of  which  is  the  shape  of  the  letter  "I". 

ICE  CREAM  CONES— See  Wafers  and  Cones. 

ICE  FORMATION— (In  sprinkler  piping  in  risks  involv- 
ing mechanical  refrigeration).  As  a  preventive  measure, 
up-to-date  plants  have  an  apparatus  for  reducing  the  amount 
of  moisture  in  the  air  used  in  charging  the  dry  pipe  system. 
This  apparatus  consists  of  an  air  pump  taking  air  from  a 
small  refrigerator  room  constructed  especially  for  the  pur- 
pose. It  is  called  the  air  chiller,  and  discharges  back  through 
coils  and  a  settling  drum  located  in  the  same  room.  A  valve 
is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  settling  drum  for  drawing  off 
the  accumulation  of  water  removed  from  the  air.  See  Ring 
Ice  Formation. 

ICE  HOUSES— Usually  large,  light  frame  construction 
and  filled  with  salt  hay,  sawdust  or  hay  between  each  cake 
of  ice.  Inspectors  should  note  if  located  near  water  that  is 
pure  and  not  contaminated.  Sweating  hay  is  subject  to  spon- 
taneous combustion.  Instances  have  been  known  where  the 
owner  has  kept  the  ice  so  long  that  it  froze  into  one  mass 
and  could  not  be  removed  except  by  blasting,  in  which  case 
the  ice  has  no  market  value.  The  moral  hazard  should  al- 
ways be  investigated. 

ICE-MAKING — There  are  two  distinct  methods  of  freez- 
ing the  water  by  the  same  evaporating  agents.  One  is  tht 
Can  System,  whereby  the  filled  cans  are  almost  entirely  im- 
mersed in  brine  which  is  kept  cool  by  ammonia  expansion 
coils.  An  agitation  of  the  brine  is  secured  by  means  of  pro- 
peller wheels  in  the  brine,   usually  operated  by  a  motor. 

The  other  is  known  as  the  Plate  System,  where  cells  are 
filled  with  water.  The  walls  of  the  cells  are  iron  plates  form- 
ing  a    chamber,    inside    of    which    coils    are    placed    through 

253 


254  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

which  brine  is  circulated  or  in  which  ammonia  is  expanded. 
With  this  system,  the  freezing  progresses  from  each  side 
and  toward  the  center,  but  so  as  to  form  two  plates  of  ice, 
the  freezing  process  being  arrested  before  the  center  is 
frozen.  Iron  bars  are  frozen  in  these  cakes,  with  which  they 
are  raised  out  of  the  cells  by  cranes  and  pulleys.  The  cakes 
of  ice  are  loosened  from  the  plates  by  turning  warm  water 
into  the  coils.  It  is  claimed  for  the  plate  system  of  ice-mak- 
ing that  the  product  more  nearly  approximates  natural 
frozen  water,  and  that  artificial  cooling  of  the  ice  store- 
rooms is  not  necessary  whereas  with  the  can  system  a  tem- 
perature of  about  28  degrees  must  be  artificially  maintained 
to  prevent  the  ice  from  melting. 

IFE — A  white  fibre  from  which  cordage  is  made. 

IMITATION  LEATHER— Paper,  cloth,  wood  pulp,  cel- 
luloid, fibre  and  cloth  sheets  are  the  main  bases.  These  are 
sized,  impregnated  with  nitrated  cotton  in  paste  form  in  a 
calender  (set  of  steam  rolls),  dried,  varnished,  painted  or  em- 
bossed or  enameled.  This  is  a  hazardous  process,  including 
picking  cotton  and  drying  nitrated  cotton  (the  same  process 
as  in  making  cellulose).  The  mixture  is  inflammable,  and 
the  vapors  are  explosive.  The  cellulose  is  mixed  with  sub- 
stances like  clay,  with  oils  to  add  to  the  spreading  qualities 
and  then  colored.  As  in  making  oil-cloth,  the  coating  process 
is  repeated  for  desired  thickness.  This  latter  feature  should 
be  in  fireproof  cut-off  section.  Embossing  press  and  cor- 
rugating machines  are  mainly  gas-heated.  The  nitrating 
building,  picker  house,  boiler  room  and  storage  buildings 
should  be   detached.     See   Leather. 

IMITATION  MARBLE  AND  ONYX  are  usually  made  at 
slate  quarries.  The  slab  of  slate  is  cut,  ground  and  polished 
smoothly,  and  gradually  submerged  in  a  vat  or  tub  of  water. 
The  water  is  streaked  with  paint  which  adheres  to  th^  slate 
as  it  submerges.  When  removed,  the  slate  is  baked  in  a 
kiln,  polished,  varnished,  dried  and  rubbed  with  oils  to  ob- 
tain a  high  finish.  Benzine  or  turpentine  paint  are  sometimes 
used. 

IMPOST— The  upper  part  of  a  pier  from  which  an  arch 
springs.  - 


INCANDESCENT  ELECTRIC    LAMPS  255 

IMPROVEMENTS— This  class  of  insurance  should  bt 
written  with  extreme  care,  and  should,  wherever  possible,  be 
included  in  the  building  or  contents  items.  Where  the  im-^^ 
provements  to  buildings  are  written  separately  from  the  in- 
surance on  the  building,  they  usually  take  the  building  rate 
with  an  additional  charge  added  thereto  when  written  sepa- 
rate from  building  insurance.  Insurance  complications  are 
likely  to  ensue  after  a  loss  unless  the  same  insurance  com- 
pany insures  both  the  improvements  and  buildings.  Inspec- 
tion should  always  be  made  to  determine  the  nature  of  the 
improvements.  It  may  develop  as  very  good  insurance  such 
as  a  new  brick  front,  or  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  very 
poor  insurance  such  as  highly  ornamental  plaster  ceilings, 
mirrored  side  walls,  fresco  work,  wall  paintings.  Tenants 
who  install  permanent  improvements  such  as  mentioned 
above  have  an  insurable  interest  in  same  although  they  prop- 
erly belong  to  the  owner  of  building,  who  (by  virtue  of 
ownership)  may  claim  damages  in  case  of  fire.  In  this  in- 
stance it  is  possible  that  the  same  loss  might  be  paid  twice, 
both  to  tenant  and  owner.  Only  competent  underwriters 
should  accept  "Improvements"  insurance. 

INCANDESCENT  ELECTRIC  LAMPS  called  in  the 
trade  "carbon  lamps."  They  are  being  rapidly  replaced  by 
Mazda  and  Tungsten  lamps.  An  extensive  detail  process  but 
briefly  described  is  as  follows:  Glass  bulbs  received  with  col- 
lars attached,  two  copper  wires  tipped  with  platinum  are  in**'^ 
serted  and  the  filament  put  on.  The  filaments  are  of  ordi- 
nary absorbent  cotton  in  solution  of  zinc  chloride,  injected 
into  wood  aJcohol  under  air  pressure  in  a  bulb  which  solidi- 
fies the  filament;  placed  in  carbonizing  furnace  where  it  re- 
mains until  carbonized.  The  temperature  is  about  4000  deg.  F. 
Flashing  follows,  which  process  is,  passing  an  electric  cur* 
rent  through  the  filament  in  the  presence  of  gasoline  vapor. 
The  flashing  apparatus  consists  of  a  glass  container  of  gaso- 
line from  which  is  passed  a  rubber  tube  to  a  vacuum  vessel 
containing  the  filament  which  is  held  by.  clamps  connected 
with  electric  current.  The  current  passing  through  the  fila- 
ment brings  it  to  incandescence,  and  the  gasoline  vapor 
passed  into  the  vacuum,  the  vapor  being  broken  down  and  a 


25ft^  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

black  metallic  appearing  covering  of  hydrocarbon  deposited 
on  the  filament.  It  is  then  cemented  to  the  platinum  (or  sub- 
stitute) wires.  The  bulb  and  the  mount  are  fused  together  and 
the  air  exhausted  from  the  bulb.  A  more  perfect  vacuum  is 
created  by  the  use  of  amorphorous  phosphorus  and  alco- 
hol. (Numerous  spark  fires  due  to  friction  are  caused  at  this 
point  more  than  at  any  other  in  the  process.)  The  lamps 
are  tested  with  electric  current,  to  determine  the  candle- 
power  and  defects,  packed  and  shipped.  Electric  hazard  se- 
vere. Glass  blowing,  blow  pipe  work,  use  of  alcohol,  zinc 
chlorides  and  amosphous  phosphorus,  carbonizing  ovens, 
flashing  with  gasoline  vapors,  buffing  and  packing  are  the 
usual  hazards. 

INCENDIARISM — The  act  or  practice  of  maliciously  set- 
ting fire  to  buildings.     See  Pyromaniac. 

INCENSE — The  material  is  a  mixture  of  powdered  char- 
coal, starch  and  perfumes,  molded  into  small  cakes  and  dried. 
The  only  severe  hazard  is  the  grinding  of  charcoal. 

INCOMBUSTIBLE— Materials  which  not  readily  ignite 
when  subjected  to  ordinary  fire. 

INCOMBUSTIBLE  BUT  NOT  FIREPROOF— The  term 
refers  to  steel  skeleton,  construction  built  with  unprotected 
iron  work. 

INCREASE  OF  HAZARD— The  policy  states  that  if  there 
be  any  increase  of  hazard,  the  assured  shall  notify  the  in- 
surance company.  The  courts  have  liberally  interpreted  this 
clause,  giving  the  insured  the  benefit  of  the  doubt  in  most 
cases.  An  increase  of  rate  does  not  necessarily,  signify  an 
increase  of  hazard. 

INCUBATORS  AND  BROODERS— The  most  popular  is 
the  type  heated  by  kerosene  oil  lamps.  The  end  of  the  in- 
cubator should  be  protected  with  non-combustible  material 
plus  an  air  space  of  at  least  1  inch  between  the  metal  shield 
and  the  incombustible  material.  The  heater  should  be  all 
metal  with  riveted  joints.  The  heated  air  pipe  entering  the 
incubator  ought  not  to  be  in  contact  with  the  woodwork. 
All  woodwork  should  be  protected  with  metal  or  asbestos. 
The  lamp  should  be  of  metal  bowl  type,  rigidly  set,  and  ar- 


INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS  257 

ranged  SO  that  it  cannot  be  filled  while  lighted  or  while  it 
is  in  the  incubator. 

Brooders  should  be  of  non-combustible  material.  In  place 
of  kerosene  oil  type,  some  employ  hot  water,  gas  or  elec- 
tricity, and  the  rules  governing  the  installations  of  these  are 
those  of  approved  general  practice.  Kerosene  oil-heated 
types  of  brooders  or  incubators  have  a  poor  fire  record. 

INDEPENDENT  WALL— An  outside  wall  carrying  loads 
of  but  one  building. 

INDIA  RUBBER  is  the  solidified  sap  of  the  rubber  tree. 
See  Caoutchouc. 

INDIA  RUBBER  CEMENT  is  India  rubber  solution  of 
coal  tar  naphtha. 

INDIAN  COTTON,  called  Lintus  or  Linters,  is  similar  to 
shoddy. 

INDIAN  SPIRITS— A  benzine  substitute;  acceptable  to 
underwriters;  has  a  flash  point  of  about  105  deg.  F. 

INDIGO — A  blue  coloring  substance  originally  obtained 
from  the  indigo  plant;  now  artificially  prepared  as  a  coal  tar 
product.  In  underwriting,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
this  stock  is  kept  away  from  other  stocks.  A  hose  stream 
played  on  this  material  will  cause  colors  to  run  through  the 
building  and  damage  other  stocks. 

INDIGOTINE— A  dyestuff  used  in  the  color  blue. 

INFANTS*  AND  CHILDRENS*  WEAR— Usually  white 
goods.  Susceptible,  but  if  attended  to  at  once  after  a  fire, 
considerable  salvage  can  be  derived.  Subject  to  mildew  and 
the  colors  running  from  ribbons.  Usually  kept  in  glass  show 
cases. 

INFLAMMABLE  LIQUIDS  should  be  stored  in  rooms 
constructed  of  8-inch  brick  or  6-inch  tile  walls  with  similar 
roofs  and  doors  with  sills  raised  4  to  6  inches  to  prevent 
the  liquid  from  running  into  other  rooms.  All  doors  should 
be  standard  automatic,  and  windows  wired  glass  (double 
glazed  preferred)  in  hollow  metal  sash  and  frame.  Good 
ventilation  is  a  primary  requirement.  AH  liquids  flashing 
under  100  deg.  F.  are  classed  inflammable. 

INFLAMMABLE  VAPORS— Those  heavier  than  air  set- 
tle close  to  the  lowest  leyel  and  are  present  in  an  invisibly 


258  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Stream  leading  to  an  opening  of  any  kind  such  as  a  door 
or  stairway.  An  open  light  100  feet  away  may  be  sufficient 
to  ignite  this  vapor.  Precautions  as  to  ventilation,  electrical 
devices,  vent  fans,  etc.,  are  the  necessary  requirements. 

INGOT — A  lump  of  cast  metal,  as  for  instance:  a  pig  of 
cast  iron. 

INHERENT  HAZARDS— The  hazards  found  in  the  or- 
dinary risk  of  a  given  occupation  aside  from  the  common 
hazards  of  light,  heat  and  power  or  of  special  processes.  See 
Hazard. 

INITIALS — It  is  well  not  to  pass  a  line  of  insurance  with- 
out ascertaining  the  first  name  of  the  assured.  Many  women 
use  the  initial  of  the  first  name  without  prefixing  Miss  or 
Mrs.  This  is  often  resorted  to  as  a  subterfuge  to  mislead 
the  insurance  company  into  believing  that  the  insured  is  a 
man.     See  Woman's  Names. 

INK  (Printing  Ink)— Ordinarily  made  of  linseed  oil,  lamp- 
black, soap  and  nut  oils,  dry  colors,  Japan,  varnish  an'd  rosin 
oil.  Manufacturing  requires  the  use  of  grinding  mills,  mixers, 
calenders,  kettles  and  furnaces.  Ink  mills  usually  consist  of 
three  calender  rolls,  steam-heated,  one  revolving  in  the  di- 
rection opposite  to  those  above  and  below.  The  paste  is 
ground  between  the  rolls  for  mixing  and  smoothing. 

INSECT  AND  VERMIN  EXTERMINATORS— May 
contain  carbon  bisulphide,  gasoline,  or  other  similar  sub- 
stances. Rat  exterminator  can  be  made  of  ground  sponge 
saturated  with  flour,  sugar,  grease,  barium  carbonate. 

INSPECTOR — One  who  inspects  the  risk  on  which  a  com- 
pany assumes  liability.  He  should  have  a  good  knowledge 
of  building  construction  and  hazards  and  also  know  some- 
thing about  machinery,  electricity  and  chemistry. 

INSPECTORS  should  "train  their  noses"  as  well  as  their 
minds  and  eyes.  In  these  days  of  new  processes,  the  olfac- 
tory sense  will  often  indicate  and  detect  the  use  or  pres- 
ence of  substances  which  may  not  be  visible  but  which  can 
be  detected  by  smell  if  the  inspector  is  familiar  with  odors. 

The  best  inspector  is  not  always  the  one  who  boasts  loud- 
ly of  his  education  and  finishes  his  day's  work  in  spotless 
clothing,  imrna^ulate  linen  and  with  lily-white  hands.    There 


INSPECTORS  259 

are  many  inspectors  arrayed  thusly  who  can  only  be  dubbed, 
"The  Sign  Readers."  The  ambitious,  conscientious  and  suc- 
cessful inspector  will  always  endeavor  to  obtain  all  the  in- 
formation due  him,  in  probing-  for  causes,  conditions  and  re- 
sults, with  the  manner  of  a  gentleman,  the  speech  of  a  diplo- 
mat and  the  common  sense  of  a  man.  He  will  always  at- 
tempt to  investigate  "concealed  spaces,"  whether  he  begrima 
his  skin  or  his  clothing.  And  last  but  not  least,  he  will  never 
allow  himself  to  think,  or  act  as  though  he  believed,  that 
he  owns  any  person's  property,  because  he  bears  the  title. 
Inspector.  The  assured  invariably  judges  the  company  from 
the  speech  or  actions  of  its  representative.  In  conclusion, 
let  the  Inspector  who  thinketh  he  knoweth  it  all,  take  heed, 
lest  he  be  made  ashamed;  because  that  type  of  an  Inspector 
is  usually  a  pronounced  failure.  Inspectors  should  always 
point  out  the  defects  of  a  risk  to  the  tenant  and  oflTer  sug- 
gestions toward  their  correction.  All  processes,  special  ma- 
chinery, common  hazards  and  exposures,  should  be  set  forth 
in  the  report.  There  is  a  wide  difference  between  inspection 
work  by  rating  bureaus  and  the  work  done  by  individual 
companies.  In  the  former,  construction  and  the  physical 
hazards  as  relating  to  rate-making  are  noted  while  in  the 
latter  the  "human  element"  enters,  i.  e.,  the  moral  hazard, 
general  appearance,  prosperity,  class  of  help  and  other  fea- 
tures which  a  company  requires  for  underwriting  purposes 
and  which  are  not  brought  out  in  the  rating  schedule. — 
(Chas.  E.  Jahne.) 

INSTRUMENTS  (SURGICAL)— The  hazards  are  those 
of  machine  shops  with  forging,  annealing,  emery  wheels, 
blow  pipes,  engraving.  The  parts  are  usually  cleaned  with 
benzine  to  remove  grease  or  oil  and  treated  in  a  bath  of 
nitric  and  sulphuric  acids. 

Instruments  and  razors  are  subject  to  rust  from  dampness 
and  do  not  necessarily  have  to  become  wet. 

INSULATE — To  cover  with  a  non-conducting  substance. 

INSULATED — A  body  is  insulated  when  it  is  separated 
from   other  bodies   by  a   non-conducting   substance. 

INSULATING  COMPOUND— For  electric  wires  and 
cables,   the   composition   is   principally   rosin,   pitch,   parafin, 


8W  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

gilsonite,  montan  wax,  grahamite  and  prepared  asphalt. 
These  are  heated  in  steam  kettles  or  Mott  kettles  with  di- 
rect fire  heat.  Such  a  composition  has  a  very  high  flash 
point. 

INSULATION,  on  electric  wires,  in  burning  give  off  fumes 
which  are  injurious  to  or  will  suffocate  firemen  when  fight- 
ing fire. 

INSULATORS — Substances  which  do  not  conduct  elec- 
tricity such  as  glass,  gutta-percha  or  porcelain.  See  Air 
Space;  also  Asbestos  Insulators. 

INSURANCE — A  system  of  collecting  sums  of  money 
(called  premiums)  from  a  number  of  people  to  pay  the  losses 
of  a  few.  The  rate  therefore  should  be  graded  according  to 
classes  of  trade  to  effect  an  equal  distribution  of  the  cost 
(premium)  among  those  businesses  which  have  shown  a 
larger  percentage  of  fires   than   some  others. 

INTERIOR  DECORATORS— Those  occupying  small 
shops  or  grade  floor  stores  are  in  some  cases  considered  de- 
sirable insurance  risks  when  they  have  only  a  few  pieces  of 
furniture  or  draperies  on  display  while  other  shops  may  be 
crowded  with  furniture  to  be  remade,  antiques,  odds  and 
ends,  draperies,  stocks  of  wall-paper  and  present  an  untidy 
condition.  The  higher  class  concerns  usually  occupy  sev^ 
eral  floors  of  a  building  in  a  good  section  with  offices,  show- 
rooms and  workrooms.  Here  we  may  find  upholstering, 
drapery-making,  sewing,  furniture  repairing,  also  retail  stocks 
of  fancy  goods  or  notions.     See  Painters. 

INTERTIE — Small  pieces  of  timber  placed  horizontally 
between,  and  framed  into  vertical  pieces  to  tie  them  together. 

INVERTED  ARCHES  are  frequently  built  under  open- 
ings in  order  to  distribute  the  pressure  more  evenly  over 
the  foundation. 

INVERTED  GAS-LIGHT  mantles  have  caused  many  fires 
owing  to  the  red-hot  carbon  dropping  on  combustible  mate- 
rial. 

INVISIBLE  HEAT— See  Flames. 

IODIDES — As  chlorine  forms  chlorides  with  many  of  the 
metals,  so  iodine  forms  iodides  with  them. 


IODINE  261 

IODIDE  OF  NITROGEN— A  highly  explosive  black  pow- 
der, used  in  combination  with  drugs. 

IODINE  is  produced  to  some  extent  from  the  ashes  of 
deep  seaweed,  but  mainly  from  crude  Chile  saltpeter  or 
Caliche.  It  is  bluish-black,  lustrous  crystalline  solid,  slightly 
volatile  and  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water.  Melts  at  about 
114  deg.  C.  (238  deg.  F.)  and  boils  at  about  184  deg.  C.  It 
is  usually  imported  from  South  America  in  small  hardwood 
kegs  bound  with  iron  hoops,  covered  with  dried  skins  which 
are  said  to  be  intended  to  keep  the  kegs  from  falling  apart 
should  the  destructive  action  of  the  contents  on  the  wood 
and  metal  weaken  the  keg  to  the  point  of  collapse  before  the 
iodine  is  ready  for  use. 

OwiiTg  to  its  great  tendency  to  stain  everything  with  which 
it  or  its  vapor  comes  in  contact  it  should  not  be  stored  in 
buildings  containing  other  merchandise,  unless  it  is  on  a 
floor  lower  than  those  on  which  the  other  stocks  are  kept. 

Iodine  Extract  presents  a  better  insurance  proposition,  as 
it  is  kept  in  bottles  packed  in  wooden  boxes. — (W.  J.  Tal- 
lamy.) 

IRON — Cast  Iron  has  considerable  carbon,  Wrought  Iron 
no  carbon,  Steel  about  one  per  cent,  carbon.  When  an  iron 
band  or  hoop  is  first  heated  and  then  at  once  placed  upon 
the  body  which  it  is  intended  to  surround,  it  shrinks  or  con- 
tracts as  it  cools  and  thereby  fits  very  tightly. 

IRON  BED  AND  SPRING  MANUFACTURING— Main- 
ly a  machine  shop  hazard  with  drills,  presses,  rolls,  stretch- 
ing and  special  machines.  Parts  are  sometimes  dipped  in 
black  asphaltum  or  coated  with  aluminum  or  bronze  paint. 
Excelsior  pads  used  for  wrapping.  The  class  has  a  poor 
fire  record. 

IRON  BORINGS,  TURNINGS  AND  FILINGS,  are  more 
or  less  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion  when  moist. 
Should  be  kept  in  metal  receptacles.  Sometimes  called 
"swarf." 

IRON  CLAD — A  frame  wall  sheathed  with  corrugated 
iron,  replacing  the  clapboards. 

IRON  FRONT  BUILDINGS— If  in  rows  are  apt  to  have 
a  hollow  space   back  of  the   iron   fronts.     Fire   is   likely   to 


262  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

travel  from  one  building  to  another  unless  this  concealed 
space  is  backed  up  with  brick  or  other  fire-resisting  material. 

IRON  MASS — A  mixture  of  wood  shavings  with  hydrated 
ferric  oxide.     Used  to  remove  sulphur  from  coal  gas. 

IRON  MASS  (SPENT)— Called  spent-iron  sponge.  Is 
iron  mass  after  saturation  in  gas  purification.  Subject  to 
spontaneous  combustion  on  exposure  to  air. 

IRON  RUST— Oxide  of  iron. 

IRON-ON-STUD  WALL— Corrugated  iron  or  sheet  iron 
fastened  directly  on  studding. 

ISINGLASS— Bladder  of  fishes.  The  better  grade  is  made 
from  the  giant  sturgeon  of  Russia.    See  Mica. 

ISOLATED — A  building  is  isolated  when  it  stands  alone 
with  no  other  building  in  vicinity.  • 

ISOMETRIC  DRAWINGS -All  vertical  lines  are  90  deg., 
while  all  other  lines  are  30  deg. 

ISOPRENE — The  raw  product  from  which  artificial  rub- 
ber is  produced. 

ISTLE — A  fibre  of  a  tropical  American  plant,  grown 
abundantly  in  Mexico.     Used  in  brush  making.     See  Fibres. 

IXTLE— Same  as  Istle. 

IVORY  BLACK — Made  by  burning  or  charring  chips  of 
elephant  tusks  and  other  hard  bones  free  from  fat. 


JACKETED — A  means  to  prevent  "direct"  heating  by  plac- 
ing a  steam  or  water  jacket  around  the  kettle  or  other  re^ 
ceptacle  containing  the  substance  to  be  melted,  thereby  pre- 
venting such  substances  as  glue,  pitch  or  wax  from  over- 
flowing onto  the  fire.  Also  an  insulating  covering  on  steam 
pipes. 

JACK-RAFTERS— Small  rafters  laid  on  the  purlins  of  a 
roof  for  supporting  the  shingle  laths. 

JACK  SHAFT— Intermediate  driving  shafting.  Usually 
driven  by  main  shafting  and  drives  the  countershafting. 

JAMBS — The  sidts  of  an  opening  through  a  wall,  as  door, 
window  and  fireplace  jambs. 

JAPAN  BLACK — A  varnish  made  with  tar  and  alcohol, 
or  lamp-black  and  resins. 

JAPAN  DRYERS— Made  of  linseed  oil  and  gum  shellac 
cooked  in  a  varnish  kettle.  Litharge,  burnt  umber,  sugar  of 
lead  and  turpentine  may  be  added.  Naphtha  and  benzine 
may  be  used,  especially  as  a  thinner.  When  cooked  to  a 
thick  substance  called  a  "pill"  it  is  cooled  and  thinned. 
Baked  Black  Japans,  made  of  linseed  oil  and  asphalt,  copal 
resins,  kauri  gums  and  turpentine. 

JAPAN  WAX — A  solid  wax  extracted  from  the  berries  of 
the  Japanese  lacquer  tree.     Melting  point  120-125  deg.  F. 

JAPAN,  ENAMEL  AND  LACQUER  OVENS— To  be  of 
all  metal,  double  wall,  with  air  space  filled  with  insulating 
material;  vented  to  the  outer  air  and  heated  by  steam  or 
electricity.  Direct  fire  heat  is  a  serious  hazard.  If  gas  is 
used,  the  heat  should  be  radiated  through  an  all-sheet  metal 
flooring  between  burners  and  lacquered  goods  to  prevent  the 
vapors  in  oven  being  ignited  by  exposed  flames.  Vent  pipe 
and  oven  not  to  be  near  woodwork.     See  Dip  Tanks. 

JEWELRY — Novelty    jewelry    is    mostly    imitation    ware, 

263 


264  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

such  as  imitation  pearl  (glass),  pins  and  trinkets.  Shops  use 
gas  blow-pipes,  small  metal  working  machines,  gas  or  elec- 
tric-heated  dry-boxes,   lacquer  and  celluloid-enamel. 

JEWELERS  use  benzine  for  watch  and  clock  cleaning,  by- 
dipping  the  mechanism  in  an  open  dish  of  the  liquid. 

JEWELERS'  PUTTY— An  oxide  of  tin. 

JIG  SAW — A  very  narrow  thin  saw  worked  vertically  by 
machinery  and  used  for  sawing  curved  ornaments  in  boards. 
It  jigs  up  and  down. 

JOBBERS — Their  method  of  conducting  business  differs  in 
various  lines.  They  can  be  classified  as  speculative  whole- 
salers and  are  the  middlemen  betwen  the  mill  or  mill  agent 
and  the  retailer  or  small  manufacturer.  For  instance,  a  job- 
ber in  piece  goods,  silks,  woolens  or  cotton,  buys  direct  from 
the  "mill  agent"  or  commission  merchant,  on  say  a  30-day 
basis,  or  buys  up  small  lots  or  "jobs"  for  cash.  In  turn  he 
sells  to  the  small  manufacturer  or  retailer  whose  business  is 
too  small  to  be  recognized  by  the  "mill  agent,"  on  a  longer 
term  basis  and  in  smaller  lots  as  desired.  For  this  accom- 
modation,  the  buyer  is  willing  to  pay  an  advanced  price 
for  the  goods,  of  say  5  to  10  per  cent,  which  represents  the 
jobber's  profit.  Also  some  jobbers  take  advantage  of  a  man- 
ufacturer's temporary  financial  embarrassment  and  offer  him 
a  low  figure  on  a  cash  basis  for  his  product.  For  instance, 
in  the  cloak  and  suit  line,  a  manufacturer  may  need  some 
ready  money  to  meet  a  note  before  his  garments  can  be  mar- 
keted in  the  regular  way.  A  jobber  may  buy  the  garments 
for  cash  at  a  figure  which  would  permit  him  to  resell  to  a 
retailer  or  wholesaler  at  less  than  they  could  ordinarily  buy 
direct  from  the  manufacturer,  and  still  make  a  profit  for 
himself. 

JOINTERS — Woodworking  machines  used  to  make  a  true 
surface  or  edge  for  gluing,  also  for  trucing  up  smoothly, 
chamfering,  beveling.  Similar  to  planers  except  without  feed 
rolls,  the  work  being  held  against  cutters  by  hand,  producing 
a  great  deal  of  refuse.  Cylinder  head  rotates  rapidly  and  is 
liable  to  overheat  bearings  unless  clean  and  properly  aligned. 

JOIST — A  beam  set  on  edge  to  which  the  flooring  is  fas- 
tened. 


JUTE    RISKS  265 

JOURNAL — The  end  or  other  part  of  shaft  which  rests 
on  or  against  a  bearing  and  supporting  the  ends  of  a  hori- 
zontal revolving  shaft. 

JUNK  SHOPS — While  of  one  general  class,  may  be  sub- 
divided into  classes  such  as  those  who  carry  all  metal,  metal 
and  rubber,  or  those  who  include  paper  and  rags.  Sometimes 
used  as  a  "fence"  for  stolen  goods,  and  frequently  as  "hang- 
outs."    Very  poor  fire  risks. 

JUTE— See  Fibres. 

JUTE  RISKS— Raw  stock  consists  of  hemp,  istle,  jute, 
sisal,  old  burlap,  tar,  mineral  oil,  starch,  borax,  soda,  tampica, 
talc  and  ammonia.  Process  consists  of  opening,  picking, 
lapping,  carding,  roving,  drawing,  twisting,  spinning,  rope 
preparing  .by  laying,  coloring,  tarring,  polishing,  weaving, 
calendering  and  honking.  This  class  has  a  very  poor  fire 
record  and  should  be  written  with  extreme  care.  Jute  is 
bleached  by  exposing  the  fibre  to  the  action  of  perman- 
ganates and  then  sulphuric  acid. 

JUTE  SHODDY  is  made  by  macerating  burlap  bags, 
sacks,  etc.     See  Hemp;  see  Cordage. 


SI 


KAKODYL — A  heavy  fuming  liquid  which  takes  fire  when 
coming  in  contact  with  air. 

KALAMEIN  DOOR—A  metal-clad  door,  the  metal  being 
in  large  sheets  pressed  over  the  wood  door.  Unless  labeled, 
not  considered  very  good  in  case  of  fire. 

KALAMEIN  DOOR  MANUFACTURING— Metal  and 
woodworking  hazards.  The  metal  is  placed  over  the  wood 
and  power  saws  then  cut  through  metal  and  wood,  some- 
times causing  sparks  to  drop  into  the  oil-soaked  sawdust  un- 
der the  saw  table.     Poor  fire  risks. 

KALAMEIN  IRON  is  a  trade  name  for  open  hearth  sheet 
steel  covered  with  a  thin  alloy  of  tin  and  lead. 

KALSOMINE — A  sort  of  lime  or  whiting  used  to  coat 
walls. 

KAPOK  OR  COPAC— A  cotton  or  silky  fibre  covering 
the  seeds  of  a  tropical  tree  found  in  East  and  West  Indies. 
It  is  a  substitute  for  hair  and  cotton  and  used  for  pillows, 
mattresses,  life  preservers  and  linings  for  aviators'  coats.  It 
is  non-absorbent.  Heat  expands  it.  It  costs  more  than  cot- 
ton but  can  be  renovated  simply  by  steaming.  When  loose 
burns  very  rapidly.  Not  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion. 
Classed  as  a  fibre.     Sometimes  called  "Silk  Floss." 

KEROSENE  BURNERS— Specifications  for  the  Tempo- 
rary Installation  of  Small  Kerosene  Burners  for  Emergency 
Use  in  Fire  Boxes  of  Cooking  Stoves,  Heating  Stoves,  Fur- 
naces and  Boilers — Permission  may  be  granted  for  the  tem- 
porary use  only  as  an  emergency  measure  of  special  burn- 
ers in  stoves  and  furnaces  as  a  substitute  for  coal  or  other 
fuel. 

The  capacity  of  gravity  tanks  containing  kerosene  shall  not 
exceed  2  gallons  for  stoves  and  5  gallons  for  boilers  or  fur- 
naces. The  tanks  should  preferably  be  located  outside  of 
building;  if  inside,  they  shall  not  be  within  5  feet  measured 

266 


KEROSENE  BURNERS  267' 

horizontally  from  any  fire  or  flame.  Pressure  tanks  shall  not 
exceed  10  gallons  total  capacity  (air  and  kerosene),  and  if 
inside  shall  not  be  within  10  feet  measured  horizontally  of 
any  fire  or  flame.  •.  v    ,•     \     > 

Tanks  for  kerosene  shall  be  constructed  of  galvanized  she^t 
iron  or  steel;  all  joints  to  be  riveted  and  soldered  or  made 
tight  by  some  equally  satisfactory  process.  The  shell  of  tank 
shall  be  properly  reinforced  where  coniiections  are  made. 
The  tanks  shall  be  sufficiently  strong  to  bear  without  injury 
the  most  severe  strain  to  which  they  are  likely  to  be  sub- 
jected in  practice.  Tanks  for  systems  under  pressure  shall 
be  designed  for  six  times  the  maximum  working  pressure 
and  tested  for  twice  the  maximum  working  pressure. 

Gravity  tanks  shall  be  readily  accessible  for  filling,  and  be 
set  in  a  drip  pan  constructed  of  galvanized  sheet  iron  or 
steel,  with  joints  riveted  and  soldered  or  made  tight  by  some 
equally  satisfactory  process.  The  tank  and  pan  shall  be  sup- 
ported on  a  shelf  rigidly  secured  to  wall  or  partition.  The 
drip  pan  shall  be  at  least  two  inches  deep  and  extend  four 
inches  beyond  tank  at  sides  and  front.  The  wall  or  partition 
back  of  tank  shall  be  covered  with  sheet  metal,  which  shall 
extend  four  inches  beyond  the  sides  and  twelve  inches  above 
tanks;  the  sheet  metal  shall  also  overlap  the  side  of  and  ex- 
tend to  bottom  of  pan. 

Each  pressure  tank  shall  be  set  in  a  drip  pan  on  the  floor 
at  a  safe  location  and  protected  from  injury.  The  tanks 
shall  be  placed  in  a  pan  two  inches  deep  and  extend  at  least 
four  inches  beyond  the  tank  on  all  sides. 

A  drip  pan  capable  of  holding  the  fuU  capacity  of  supply 
tank  shall  be  placed  below  oil  burner. 

Piping — Standard,  full-weight  wrought-iron  or  steel  or 
brass  pipe  with  substantial  iron  or  brass  fittings  shall  be 
used  and  connections  made  tight  with  well-fitted  joints.  Pip- 
ing to  be  run  as  directly  as  possible  find  be  protected  against 
injury.  Systems  under  pressure  to  be  designed  for  six  times 
the  maximum  working  pressure,  and  installation,  when  com- 
plete, to  be  tested  to  twice  the  working  pressure. 

Any  storage  of  oil  outside  of  a  buried  tank  shall  be  limited 
to  60  gallons  in  an  oil  barrel  or  its  equivalent. 


2^  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

A  shut-off  valve  should  be  placed  in  the  pipe  line  as  near 
as  possible  to  oil  receptacle  and  one  near  burner.  (Recom- 
mendations of  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.) 

KEROSENE  OIL— A  petroleum  distillate;  flash  point 
about  115-125  deg.  F.     See  Mineral  Burning  Oil. 

KEROSENE  OIL  STOVES  or  lamps  should  not  be  filled 
while  lighted,  or  even  when  hot. 

KETONE — Chemical  group,  sometimes  called  acetones. 

KEYSTONE— The  center  stone  in  an  arch. 

KID  GLOVES — Not  considered  attractive  stocks  because 
only  a  slight  moisture  will  class  the  stock  as  seconds. 

KILLED  ACID  is  made  by  dissolving  zinc  in  hydrochloric 
or  muriatic  acid. 

KILNING  is  merely  drying  on  a  large  scale.  Inspectors 
should  note  construction  of  side  walls,  roofs  and  floors,  and 
whether  cut  off  in  separate  building  or  communicating.  The 
heat  used  is  preferably  steam  or  hot  air;  if  the  latter,  fan 
and  motor  should  be  carefully  inspected.  Pipes  should  be 
preferably  above  or  at  the  sides  of  the  material  to  be  dried, 
not  below,  on  account  of  the  light  material  falling  on  the 
pipes  and  being  ignited.  Steam  jets  can  be  used  to  advan- 
tage to  extinguish  fires  in  kilns.  China  kilns^  used  for  dec- 
orating, are  mainly  of  brick  construction;  coal  or  coke  fuel. 
Numerous  small  gas-heated  kilns  of  special  design  are  found 
in  art  decorating  establishments.     See  Dry  Kilns. 

KILOWATT— A  thousand  watts.  A  watt  is  the  electrical 
unit  of  power,  being  the  product  of  one  volt  by  one  ampere; 
746  watts  equal  one  horse-power.     See  Electrical  Terms. 

KINDLING  WOOD  FACTORIES  use  heavy  wood-work- 
ing machinery,  chiefly  cross-cut  saws.  Generally  crowded,  and 
untidy  with  loose  bark.  Usually  occupy  old  buildings  and 
employ  cheap  labor.  Not  considered  as  good  as  ordinary 
woodworkers. 

KING  POST — The  center  post,  or  rod,  extending  verti- 
cally from  the  collar  beam  to  the  ridge  board.  All  those 
on  each  side  of  it  are  queen  posts  or  rods. 

KIPS  are  the  hides  of  young  animals.     See  Hides. 

KIRKER-BENDER  SPIRAL  FIRE  ESCAPE  consists  of 
a  spiral  slide  incased  in  a  cylinder  six  feet  in  diameter.     En- 


KNITTING    MILLS  269 

trance  is  by  a  passage  from  each  floor  to  the  tower.     Persons 
slide  to  the  foot  of  the  tower  on  the  spiral  incline. 

KITCHEN  RANGES— When  the  kitchen  range  is  placed 
eighteen  inches  from  a  wood  lath-and-plaster  or  stud  parti- 
tion, partition  must  be  shielded  with  metal  extending  from 
the  floor  to  three  feet  above  the  range.  See  Stoves;  also 
Ranges. 

KNEE — A  piece  of  timber  bent  to  receive  some  weight,  or 
to  relieve  a  strain. 

KNIT  GOODS  are  very  likely  to  be  stained  by  smoke; 
will  shrink  if  wet;  if  colored,  the  colors  are  apt  to  run, 

KNITTING  MILLS  are  mills  making  sweaters  dr  knit 
goods.  Process  consists  of  washing,  dyeing,  picking,  cutting, 
finishing,  carding,  spinning,  knitting  and  drying.  The  hazards 
of  the  picker  room  consist  of  the  light,  inflammable  stock, 
sometimes  containing  foreign  matter,  passing  through  high- 
speed machines.  A  full-fledged  picker  room  contains  a  burr 
picker,  mixing  picker  and  duster,  and  lappers  which  discharge 
the  stock  after  it  passes  through  them  into  the  gauze  or 
blow  room.  The  card  room:  After  the  raw  stock  is  cleaned 
and  mixed  in  the  picker  room  it  is  transferred  to  the  cards, 
which  lay  the  fibre  straight  and  form  it  into  a  loose  roving, 
preparatory  to  spinning  process.  The  main  hazard  in  card 
rooms  is  the  presence  of  foreign  matter  in  stock,  which  emit 
sparks  when  coming  in  contact  with  the  rolls  of  cards.  The 
other  processes  present  only  mild  hazards.  Always  remem- 
ber the  higher  the  grade  of  the  output  the  better  the  risk. 
Avoid  the  mill  with  a  low-grade  cotton  and  cotton  waste, 
especially  if  the  picker  room  is  not  properly  cut  off  and  the 
card  room  is  over  the  finishing  room.  The  fire  record  (un- 
sprinklered)  is  not  very  good. — R.  G.  Potter. 

KNOCK-DOWN— Parts  of  an  object  before  assembling, 
as  chairs  in  knock-down  condition. 

K.  O. — A  term  used  by  insurance  men  to  denote  a  poor 
risk.    Means  "Keep  off." — Gene  Eagles. 

KOHOLIA — A  form  of  alcohol  used  as  a  fuel  for  heatihg 
in  place  of  small  portable  gas  or  oil  stoves. 


LABELLED  GOODS— See  Canned  Goods. 

LACE  CURTAINS— Cleaners  and  dyers  use  nitrate  of 
iron,  permanganate  of  potash,  sulphuric  acid  and  benzine. 
The  dry  room  is  the  main  hazard. 

LACE  PAPER  WORKS— The  lace  paper  is  perforated  in 
revolving  machines,  then  sized  or  varnished.  The  perforating 
dies  are  mostly  hand-made  and  many  are  imported.  It  takes 
from  one  to  three  months  to  engrave  a  large  die  ,some  of 
which  are  two  feet  long  and  cylindrical  in  shape.  Dies  should 
be  kept  in  vaults.  All  scrap  paper  should  be  baled  daily. 
Use  and  Occupancy  insurance  should  be  written  with  caution. 

LACE  WORKS — The  hazards  are  weaving,  sewing,  knitting, 
twisting,  bobbin-winding,  sizing,  silk-throwing,  embroidering, 
lace-making,  dyeing  and  drying.  In  dyeing  use  muriatic, 
acetic  and  sulphuric  acids.  For  sizing,  use  glycerine,  gela- 
tine, gum  arabic  and  starch.  These  are  heated  in  a  steam  or 
gas-heated  kettle.  Goods  are  bleached  with  chloride  of  lime 
and  caustic  soda.  At  times  do  considerable  repair  work  and 
use  benzine  and  alcohol  for  removing  stains,  and  gas  or  elec- 
tric irons  for  pressing.  The  needle  lead  pot  is  gas-heated. 
Machine  repair  shop  work  is  extensive  in  most  plants.  Ex- 
pensive silks  should  be  kept  in  vaults.  Imported  machinery 
forms  a  large  proportion  of  value.  White  laces  are  "dry 
dyed"  by  refinishers,  who  place  them  in  wooden  tumblers 
containing  a  yellow  powder  called  "Dutch  white,"  which 
turns  the  laces  a  creamy  white. 

LACES  in  some  cases  will  be  almost  unimpaired  after  a 
serious  clean-water  damage  if  they  are  what  is  known  as 
wash  laces;  but  fancy  laces  will  not,  as  a  rule,  give  near  as 
much  salvage. 

LACQUER  FLASHES  at  about  75  deg.  F.    The  prepara- 

270 


LACQUER   FIRES  271 

tion,  storage  and  manufacture  is  very  hazardous.  Should  not 
be  stored  in  large  quantities.  Usually  consists  of  nitro-cellu- 
lose  dissolved  in  volatile  solvents.    Classed  as  inflammable. 

Dry  rooms  for  lacquered  goods  should  have  drip  pans  un- 
der or  on  steam  pipes  to  catch  excess  liquid,  as  fires  have 
been  caused  by  steampipes  covered  with  lacquer. 

LACQUER  FIRES— Sawdust,  if  spread  over  the  surface  in 
sufficient  quantity  will  readily  and  successfully  extinguish 
fires  of  inflammable  liquids,  especially  lacquer,  when  con* 
tained  in  moderate-sized  tanks,  such  as  those  ordinarily  used 
in  manufacturing  plants,  or  small  fires  in  these  liquids  on 
the  floor.  The  efficiency  of  the  sawdust  is  undoubtedly  due 
to  its  blanketing  action  in  floating  for  a  time  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  liquid,  thereby  excluding  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 
The  sawdust  itself  is  not  very  easily  ignited,  and  when  it  does 
become  ignited  it  burns  without  flame.  The  burning  embers 
are  not  sufficient  to  reignite  the  lacquer.  In  sixteen  fire  tests 
the  fire  was  put  out  in  from  11  seconds  to  1  minute  55 
seconds.     See  Dip  Tanks. 

LACQUERING— See  Varnishing. 

LACQUER  SHELLAC  is  a  mixture  of  shellac  and  lacquer. 
Inflammable. 

LACTEIN— See  Casein. 

LADIES'  FURNISHINGS,  if  not  kept  in  cardboard  boxes 
or  in  cases,  will  suffer  severe  damage  from  smoke  and  water. 
Considered   no  better  than  millinery. 

LADIES'  TAILORS  are  in  the  same  class  as  dressmakers. 
They  make  suits,  coats  and  skirts  for  individual  customers. 
Use  gas  irons  for  pressing  and  benzine  for  cleaning. 

LAGGING — A  covering  of  loose  plank,  as  that  placed  upon 
centers  and  supporting  arch   stones. 

LAGGING — A  covering  of  felt  or  other  poor  conductor  of 
heat  applied  to  steam  boilers,  pipes,  etc.,  to  prevent  radia- 
tion. 

LALLY  COLUMN  consists  of  a  steel  outer  shell  filled 
with  concrete  under  hydraulic  pressure.  Spme  rating  bureaus 
require  an  outside  insulation  of  from  two  to  four  inches  of 
concrete  or  tile. 

LAMP-BLACK — A  kind  of  soot  made  by  letting  the  smoke 


2f2  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  burning  substances,  such  as  oil,  pitch  or  rosin,  collect  in  a 
chamber  lined  with  leather.  If  moist,  is  subject  to  spon- 
taneous combustion.     See  Carbon  Black. 

LAMP  EXPLOSIONS— Many  of  these  may  be  prevented 
by  trimming  the  wick  daily.  When  burned  for  several  even- 
ings without  trimming,  the  wick  becomes  black,  clogged  and 
incapable  of  supplying  the  oil  clearly  and  uniformly,  and  the 
chimneys  are  sometimes  filled  with  flame  and  smoke,  to  the 
embarrassment  and  alarm  of  those  present.  Some  explosions 
would  be  prevented  by  never  extinguishing  the  lamp  by  blow- 
ing down  the  chimney;  for  if  the  wick  happens  to  be  too 
small,  the  flame  may  be  driven  down  into  the  oil.  The  best 
way  is  to  turn  it  down  with  the  button  until  it  is  extin- 
guished. 

LAMPS  smoke  when  the  wick  is  too  high  because  of  in- 
sufficient oxygen.  Smoke  is  made  up  of  little  particles  of 
carbon,  because  oil  as  well  as  wood  contains  carbon.  It 
smokes  because  more  oil  rises  in  the  wick  than  can  unite 
with  the  oxygen  supplied,  making  an  imperfect  combustion. 

LAMP  SHADES  of  celluloid  or  paper  should  not  be  placed 
on  electric  lamps  or  bulbs.  Many  bad  fires  have  been  caused 
by  these  flimsy  articles. 

LANTERN  SKYLIGHT— Similar  to  monitor.  A  raised 
roof  with  glass  sides,  usually  extending  the  entire  length  of 
a  building. 

LAPPER — A  machine  which  combs  out  or  cleans  the 
stock,  passing  it  over  a  wire  mesh  cylinder,  and  laying  it  in 
the  form  of  a  lap. 

LATHE — A  machine  for  shaping  wood  or  metal  parts  by 
causing  them  to  revolve  while  acted  upon  by  a  cutting  tool 
held  in  place  by  a  slide  rest. 

LATTICE  GIRDER— A  type  of  girder  in  which  the  web 
is  made-up  of  diagonal  iron  or  steel  bars,' which  form  a  lat- 
tice between  the  flanges. 

LAUGHING  GAS — A  mixture  of  one  part  oxygen  and 
four  parts  nitrous  oxide.     Used  by  dentists. 

LAUNDRIES  (Chinese)— A  class  to  be  avoided.  The  haz- 
ards are  swinging  gas  brackets,  coal  stoves  of  laundry  type, 
with  clothing  hanging  over  and  around  them;  improvised  dry 


HiTiaw       Laundries  273 

rooms,  gas  bosom  ironers  with  rubber  tube  connections,  gas 
irons,  gas  and  coal  stoves  for  heating  irons. 

LAUNDRIES  (Collar,  Cuff  and  Starched  Goods)— Wash- 
ing drums  are  revolving  wood  cylinders  into  which  the  goods 
are  placed  for  washing.  The  goods  are  dried  in  centrifugal 
extractors,  then  starched  and  ironed.  Starch  kettles  are  either 
steam  or  gas-heated.  Dry  rooms  are  usually  metal-liued  and 
steam-heated,  having  an  iron  track  on  which  a  rack  of  wet 
goods  travels  which  is  pulled  in  and  out  on  the  tracks.  Some 
dryers  have  an  overhead  traveling  track  with  a  rack,  to  which 
the  goods  are  hung  and  dried  by  the  traveller  passing  slowly 
through.  Dryers  should  have  wire  mesh  over  steam-piping 
to  prevent  goods  coming  in  contact.  There  is  less  dust  and 
lint  in  this  class  of  laundry  than  in  those  doing  general  work. 
Ironers  (called  m^angles)  are  large  steel  rollers,  cloth-covered 
and  gas-heated.  Gas  mufflers  are  used  for  hand-irons.  "Tip- 
ping" machines  are  used  to  finish  off  the  fronts  of  collars 
and  are  gas-heated. 

Power  Laundries — Process  consists  of  washing,  rough-dry- 
ing by  wringing,  and  drying  in  centrifugal  extractors,  starch- 
ing, ironing,  and  drying  in  dry  rooms.  There  are  special  iron- 
ers, such  as  "art  edge"  ironers  and  "moulding  ironers"  for 
turn-down  collars,  both  gas-heated.  The  old  style  sadiron  is 
only  used  in  the  small  store  laundries.  If  used  they  should  be 
set  on  a  solid  iron  stand  at  least  18  inches  from  all  woodwork. 
If  the  plant  machinery  is  all  steam  process  and  the  boiler  is 
cut-off  in  a  standard  manner  and  the  building  is  of  fair  con- 
struction it  should  be  a  desirable  risk.  Only  write  a  small 
line  on  the  stock,  which  is  equivalent  to  second-hand  stock. 

LAUNDRY  STOVES— The  rule  for  setting  is  the  same  as 
for  hotel  ranges.  When  set  on  legs,  two  courses  of  four- 
inch  tile  are  required.  * 

LAURING— See  Hats   (felt). 

LEAD — Derived  principally  from  an  ore  called  galena  and 
has  a  bluish  gray  color.  It  oxidizes  or  tarnishes  easily  .and 
melts  at  low  temperatures. 

LEAD  DROSS — Material  skimmed  from  the  surface  of 
molten  lead.    When  cold  it  is  non-hazardous. 


274  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

LEAD  NITRATE— A  white,  heavy,  translucent  salt.  Not 
an  oxidizing  material. 

LEASE  is  a  contract  for  the  use  of  a  building  for  a  year 
or  term  of  years.  If  the  terms  of  the  lease  are  complied 
with,  the  lessee  is  virtually  the  owner  during  the  term  men- 
tioned in  the  contract.  A  lease  is  a  valuable  holding,  there- 
fore the  lessee  should  provide  for  indemnity  in  case  the  build- 
ing is  destroyed  by  fire.  See  Leases;  see  Leasehold  Insur- 
ance. 

There  are  two  forms  of  leases.  First,  value  of  a  lease, 
where  the  building  is  occupied  by  the  lessee.  Second,  profits 
of  a  lease,  where  the  lessee  sublets  the  building  to  make  a 
profit. 

LEASES  with  the  "self-reducing"  clause  are  commonly 
written  and  the  premium  is  obtained  in  the  following  man- 
ner: Policy  written  for  eleven  years  for  the  full  amount  of 
$110,000,  the  tenth  year  for  $100,000,  and  so  on  to  the  first 
year,  $10,000,  which  added  together,  equals  $660,000,  divided 
by  11  years,  equals  $60,000,  and  the  premium  is  figured  on 
the  $60,000  amount,  but  in  case  of  loss  the  first  year,  assured 
could  collect  $110,000,  the  second  year  $100,000,  and  so  on, 
deducting  $10,000  for  each  year  the  lease  has  to  run.  It  is 
also  customary  to  write  this  insurance  specifying  so  much 
reduction  per  month.  In  this  case  the  premium  may  be  com- 
puted upon  an  amount  representing  the  average  between  the 
policy  amount  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  month  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  last  month  of  its  term.  See  Leasehold  In- 
surance. 

LEASEHOLD  INSURANCE— This  class  of  insurance 
should  be  written  cautiously  and  follow  the  same  adjustment 
as  the  building  losses.  The  form  should  be  carefully  scrutin- 
ized to  ascertain  what  restrictions  are  included,  as  for  in- 
stance, "building  is  not  to  be  used  for  a  certain  class  of  busi- 
ness or  tenants."  In  this  instance  the  neighborhood  may 
change  and  property  could  not  be  leased  for  said  purpose, 
making  leasehold  insurance  very  undesirable.  Leases  should 
not  be  insured  unless  the  assured  has  a  good  bargain.  An 
assured  may  take  a  building  during  prosperous  times  and 
later  be  losing  money  in  consequence  of  change  of  trade.  The 


LEATHER  275 

fire  clause  should  always  be  carefully  reviewed.  If  no  fire 
clause  appears  in  the  form  it  would  be  acceptable  as  no  fire 
restrictions  would  then  appear.  If  total  destruction  can- 
cels the  lease  the  form  is  also  a  good  one,  but  if  the  form 
reads  "it  is  optional  with  the  lessee  or  the  owner,"  the 
proposition  is  a  poor  one  and  should  not  be  entertained.  In 
this  latter  case  the  building  may  only  suffer  a  very  small 
damage  and  the  lessee  or  owner  decide  not  to  rebuild,  in 
which  case  the  company  would  be  forced  to  pay  .a  total  loss 
up  to  the  amount  of  the  policy.  Only  competent  underwrit- 
ers should  accept  ''Leasehold"  insurance.  See  Profits  of  a 
Lease.  ,03ia  ^ISHTAaJ 

LEATHER — A  skin  is  cut  into  three  thicknesses.  The 
top  is  the  "skiver"  or  grain,  the  middle  is  the  "splits"  and 
the  bottom  the  "flesher." 

The  wholesale  leather  dealers  term  fancy  leather,  any 
leather  .used  by  the  bag,  case,  strap,  belt,  trunk  and  novelty 
trade. 

The  word  fancy  is  used  in  quoting  trade  prices;  in  such 
cases  it  refers  to  colors. 

You  cannot  strictly  determine  the  limits  of  fancy  leather, 
as  ordinary  leather  is  used  by  the  bag,  etc.,  trade.  In  such 
cases  it  comes  in  the  fancy  class.  Pigskin  used  by  a  harness- 
maker  is  only  pigskin,  but  if  used  in  the  bag,  etc.,  trade,  it 
is  fancy  leather. 

Insurance  underwriters  usually  put  all  kinds  of  leather  in 
the  fancy  leather  class,  except  sole  and  harness,  yet  some 
have  put  the  latter  in  this  class,  especially  if  highly  finished 
and  of  light  weight.  They  would  possibly  be  correct,  from 
an  insurance  standpoint,  or  at  least  be  on  the  safe  side,  to 
class  all  leather  as  fancy,  except  sole  and  harness.  Probably 
the  latter  is  less  subject  to   damage. — T.   O.   Gildersleeve. 

Leather  (Finishing) — Received  at  tanneries  in  dry 
state,  soaked  in  water  and  in  lime  pits  (called  beam  house), 
washed  again  in  water,  the  water  squeezed  out  by  "putting- 
out"  machines,  dried,  "staked,"  and  "seasoned"  by  use  of 
ammonia  and  albumen,  tanned,  dried,  softened  by  machinery, 
ironed  and  dressed.  If  raw  hides  are  received  they  are 
"fleshed"  and  "unhaired,"  i.  e.,  the  hair  and  flesh  adhering  to 


Z76  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

the  hide  is  removed.  Tanning  and  finishing  differ  for  differ- 
ent kinds  and  qualities  of  leather.  There  may  be  used  gam- 
bia,  sumac,  tanbark,  chrome,  neat's-foot  oil,  soap,  salt,  sul- 
phuric acid,  aniline  or  logwood  dyes.  See  Celluloid  (Imi- 
tation Leather);  also  Imitation  Leather  and  Patent  Leather, 
■  LEATHER  BELTING— Some  factories  use  celluloid 
cement  instead  of  glue  for  waterproofing  or  finishing.  Cellu- 
loid is  apt  to  be  dissolved  on  the  premises  with  acetone  and 
used  from  ppen  cans. 

LEATHER  CEMENT  is  a  solution  of  rubber  in  gasoline 
or  carbon  bisulphide.     Flashes  at  zero  F.     Very  inflammable. 

LEATHER  DECORATORS  do  painting,  embossing,  stain- 
ing, sewing,  cutting.  Use  amyl  acetate,  japan,  lacqiier,  tur- 
pentine, benzine.  Coloring  is  usually  done  by  airbrush 
(spray).     Write  this  class  cautiously. 

LEATHER  DOG-COLLARS— Work  consists  of  cutting, 
splitting,  skiving,  creasing  (creasers,  gas-heated),  eyeletting 
and  riveting  machines  for  brass  ornaments,  cementing  with 
rubber  cement,  shellacing,  varnishing  and  buffing  metal  parts. 

LEATHER  DUST  is  attributed  as  the  cause  of  a  fire  in  a 
shoe  factory  recently.  Rapidly  revolving  drums  covered  with 
emery  or  sandpaper  produce  a  fine  dust;  also  a  good  deal  of 
lint  was  made  by  the  cloth-covered  buffing  wheels.  The  fire 
was  possibly  caused  by  sparks  from  the  machines.  After  the 
fire  the  floor  was  dotted  all  over  with  lumps  of  glowing  dust 
resembling  lumps  of  incandescent  charcoal.  These  balls  or, 
lumps  could  be  picked  up  without  falling  apart,  when  handled 
gently. — Fire  Chief  Soule,  Coatesville,  Pa. 

LEATHER  FINISHERS— Some  bag  makers  use  alcohol, 
acetone,  benzine,  shellac,  linseed  oil,  glycerine,  lampblack  and 
turpentine. 

LEATHER  LININGS— Bag  linings  are  the  inner  side  of 
split  sheep  skins,  called  "skives";  usually  tanned  with  sumac, 
dyed  with  anilines,  tacked  on  boards  to  stretch,  softened 
either  by  hand  or  power  machines.  Before  tacking  they  are 
^'slicked  up"  to  remove  all  loose  or  rough  surfaces  by  laying 
same  on  a  glass  washboard  and  being  scraped  with  a  knife. 
Graining  is  done  in  a  machine  similar  to  a  mangle,  having  a 


LEGAL    LIABILITY  '^l  277 

copper  roller  with  indentations,  heated  by  steam  over  which 
the  skin  is  rolled. 

LEATHER  (PATENT)— In  making  the  varnish  for  the 
patent  leather,  linseed  oil  is  heated  by  wood  or  coke  fires 
to  about  580  deg.  F.  The  temperature  of  the  oil  is  lowered 
in  open  air  to  about  250  deg.  F.  and  then  thinned  or  reduced 
with  naphtha  and  turpentine,  which  are  slowly  added.  Fires 
have  occurred  in  this  process,  due  probably  to  adding  the 
naphtha  and  turpentine  before  the  oil  is  properly  cooled.  The 
"daub"  consists  of  linseed  oil,  lampblack  and  benzine. — 
Adamson. 

LEATHER  SCRAPS  and  remnants  from  factories  are 
used  for  fertilizer  by  reducing  same  to  a  pulp  and  extracting 
the  animal  ammonia.  Leather  remnants  burn  very  slowly, 
in  fact  in  bags  they  have  stopped  the  progress  of  fire. 

LEATHER  SOFTENERS  may  contain  inflammables. 

LEATHER  (SOLE)— Will  easily  stain  from  water  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  spots  cannot  be  removed. 

LEATHER— (TRADE  NAMES)  for  leather  substitutes, 
Leathertex,  Neolin,  Textan,  Keratol,  Fabrikoid,  Texoderm, 
Pantosote. 

LEGAL  LIABILITY — Forms  are  sometimes  written  for 
expressmen  as  follows:  •$... .  on  their  legal  liability  in,  or 
for  all  merchandise  and  for  baggage  held  in  their  custody  as 
common  carriers,  warehousemen,  forwarders  or  freighters. 
It  being  mutually  understood  and  agreed  that  if  claim  is 
made  against  the  assured  hereinunder  for  merchandise  or 
baggage  held  for  them,  the  insurers  shall  have  the  option  of 
either  admitting  such  claim  for  payment,  or  if  resisting  it  in 
the  court,  the  legal  expenses  incurred  in  such  resistance  to 
be  borne  by  the  insurance  companies  interested,  in  the  pro- 
portion that  the  total  amount  of  insurance  shall  bear  to  the 
total  amount  of  such  claim  or  claims.  Only  competent  un- 
derwriters should  accept  "Legal  Liability"  insurance. 

LEHRS  OR  LEERS  (tempering  furnace)  in  glassworks 
have  a  solid  brick  wall  at  sides  and  a  flat  brick-arched  top. 
They  are  either  coke  or  gas-heated.  The  hot  ware  from  the 
glassblowers  is  placed  on  iron  trays  at  the  receiving  end  and 


278  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

then  slowly  propelled  through  the  length  of  the  lehr  on  a 
traveling  belt. 

LEMON  OIL — Composed  of  lemon  grass  and  paraffine; 
used  by  piano  polishers. 

LEPTYNE — A  substitute  for  turpentine  in  thinning  paint 
or  varnish.  Classified  same  as  turpentine.  Flashes  at  99 
deg.  F.     Fire  test,  120  deg.  F. 

LIABILITY — Where  a  tenant  occupies  a  number  of  floors 
in  a  fireproof  building  with  fair  cut-oflFs  between  floors,  the 
usual  practice  is  to  carry  the  full  line  authorized  for  one 
floor  and  a  half  line  on  each  of  the  additional  floors.  This 
same  rule  applies  to  a  row  of  buildings  or  well-constructed 
ordinary  brick  buildings  with  heavy  floors  and  standard  floor 
openings. 

LIABILITY  OF  A  COMPANY  is  primarily  divided  into 
two  classes,  contingent  and  actual  or  accrued.  Contingent 
liabilities  are  based  on  the  possibility  or  likelihood  of  being 
called  upon  to  meet  claims  such  as  losses.  When  these  losses 
occur,  the  liability  is  then  actual  or  accrued.  Policies  in  force 
are  the  principal  liability.     See  Assets. 

LICORICE  (stick  manufacturing) — Process  is  crushing, 
grinding  and  pulverizing  of  licorice  root  in  chasers.  It  is 
mixed  with  sugars  in  paste  form,  boiled  in  tanks,  where  other 
ingredients  are  added,  made  into  various  shapes  by  machinery 
and  dried  on  trays  in  dry  rooms. 

LIGHT  SHAFT— A  shaft  in  the  interior  of  a  building  for 
the  admission  of  light;  usually  has  thin  glass  windows.  A 
light  well  is  a  large  open  or  enclosed  light  shaft.    See  Shafts. 

LIGHTNING  (scientifically  known  as  static  electricity)  is 
caused  by  the  disruption  discharge  of  the  positive  electricity 
in  the  clouds  rushing  to  equalize  the  negative  electricity  in 
the  earth,  or  vice  versa.  Discharges  upward  are  by  no  means 
uncommon,  although  not  often  observed. 

LIGHTNING  RODS,  if  properly  installed,  effectually  pro- 
tect buildings.  Prof.  Dodd  says:  "Let  us  see  how  a  flash  of 
lightning  is  made,  for  there  is  always  something  at  work 
ahead  of  the  lightning  flash,  getting  things  ready. 

"Before  a  house  is  struck  with  lightning,  the  house  is  first 
charged  by  induction. 


KITIHW:  LIME  279 

"  'Induction*  is  taken  from  the  word  'induce'  and  induce 
means  to  'coax  or  pull  your  way.* 

"Before  a  house  is  struck  by  lightning  an  electric  strain  is 
placed  upon  it.  That  is,  a  condition  has  been  coaxed  into 
it,  and  it  is  this  condition  we  have  to  deal  with  if  we  would 
prevent  it  from  bursting  into  a  lightning  explosion.; 

"Now  the  air  is  a  poor  conductor  of  electricity,  and  things 
that  stick  up  from  the  earth  into  the  air,  like  houses  and 
barns,  become  discharging  points  for  the  earth's  electricity, 
and  in  this  way  the  house  gets  ready  to  be  struck. 

"So  the  lesson  we  wish  to  impress  here  is  this:  'Lightning 
is  due  to  causes.'  Electricity  first  gets  in  its  work  and  loads 
up  a  cloud.  Then  this  cloud  fixes  up  things  on  the  earth  and 
induces  an  opposite  electric  condition,  and  the  two  electrified 
surfaces  strain  and  pull  on  each  other,  and  when  the  strain, 
gets  great  enough  so  that  the  air  cannot  resist  any  longer,  off 
she  goes  with  an  explosion  through  the  house,  and  the  under- 
taker has  a  job  on  hi-s  hands." 

Cattle  or  other  livestock  herded  in  wire-fence  enclosures 
are  apt  to  be  electrocuted  if  in  contact  with  the  charged  wire. 

LIGNITE — Carbonized  fossil  wood.  Subject  to  spontane- 
ous combustion. 

LIGROIN — A  volatile  distillate  from  crude  petroleum.  In- 
flammable.    Flash  iero  F.     See  Petroleum. 

LIME — Obtained  by  calcining  marble  or  by  adding  a  solu- 
tion of  carbonate  of  ammonia  to  a  solution  of  chloride  of  cal- 
cium.   See  Calcium  Oxide. 

Lime  (unslaked)  should  be  kept  under  a  water-tight  shed 
or  building  on  proper  skids.  Many  fires  have  been  caused, 
especially  along  the  water  front,  when  the  rising  tide  causes 
the  lime  to  slake,  creating  enough  heat  to  set  fire  to  the 
structure.  Firemen  playing  hose  on  lime  will  slake  it  with 
the  same  result.     Usually  found  in  builders'  material  yards. 

LIMESTONE  FRONTS  of  buildings  are  damaged  by  heat 
more  than  any  other  granular  building  stones.  They  become 
calcined  under  intense  heat,  or  are  decomposed  into  lime. 

LINE — The  amount  of  liability  which  a  company  carries 
on  a  risk.     The  amount  is  determined  by  the  loss  ratio  ac- 


28a  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

cording  to  the  company's  underwriting  experience  or  judg- 
ment.    See  Average  Risk,  also  Block  Lines. 

LINCRUSTA— A  wall  covering.     See  Wall  Coverings. 

LINENS  offer  very  good  salvage  if  only  damaged  by  clean 
water  and  are  dried  immediately. 

LINIMENTS  usually  contain  crude  petroleum,  ether,  alco- 
hol, chloroform,  turpentine. 

LINOLEUM — The  foundation  of  linoleum  is  burlap.  This 
is  impregnated  with  ground  cork,  linseed  oil  and  oxide  of 
lead  in  a  calender  roll.  A  heavy  coating  is  then  applied  and 
printed  in  various  designs.  The  coating  mixture  is  made  of 
scrim  (light  cotton  fabric)  which  is  hung  on  racks  and  sat- 
urated with  linseed  oil.  The  oil  which  adheres  at  about  100 
•  deg.  F.  rapidly  hardens.  This  process  is  repeated  until  there 
is  a  thick  coating  (called  skin).  The  roll  is  then  cut  down 
and  ground  between  rollers.  A  cement  is  made  of  oil,  resin, 
kauri  gums  and  ground  cork,  colored  if  desired.  The  mix- 
ture is  cemented  on  the  burlap  foundation.  The  printing  of 
designs  is  a  continuous  process,  the  sheets  passing  through 
a  machine  under  blocks  of  different  colors  which,  rising  and 
falling,  do  the  printing.  Hazards  of  cork  grinding,  dry  rooms, 
oil  soaked  premises,  spontaneous  combustion  in  oily  mate- 
rials. 

Linoleum  (ground)  is  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion 
when  moist. 

LINOTYPE  MACHINES  resemble  huge  typewriters  and 
set  up  one  complete  line  of  type  at  a  time.  The  operator 
sits  at  a  keyboard,  strikes  a  letter  and  the  matrices  (brass 
slugs  on  which  is  an  impression  of  the  desired  character) 
fall  down  through  a  channel  until  a  line  of  type  is  made  up. 
Metal  followers  push  the  line  across  until  it  is  dropped  in 
front  of  a  pot  of  hot  type  metal.  The  lead  is  forced  by  air 
pressure  against  the  matrix.  The  only  hazard  is  the  lead 
pot,  which  is  usually  gas  heated.  The  gas  connection  should 
be  rigid  iron  piping.  Metal  should  be  placed  on  the  floor 
under  the  machine.     See  Printers. 

LINSEED  OIL — Is  pressed  from  flaxseed  by  either  cold 
or  hot  process.    Moderate  steam  heat  is  required  for  kettles 


LIQUID   TANKS  281 

and  presses  where  the  seeds  are  cooked  and  pressed.  Floors 
usually  very  oily. 

LINTELr — A  horizontal  beam  across  the  opening  in  a  wall 
over  windows,  doors,  etc.  When  of  wide  span  and  support- 
ting  heavy  brickwork  or  masonry  it  is  called  a  "breast- 
summer." 

LINTERS  (unbleached)— The  cotton  scraped  from  the  cot- 
ton seeds  after  the  best  or  loose  cotton  has  been  removed. 

LINTUS— See  Indian  Cotton. 

LIGNITE  (Used  for  Backs  of  Brushes)— Made  from  pow- 
dered asbestos  with  resin,  shellac  and  lampblack  in  small 
proportions  (not  hazardous). 

LIQUID  AIR  is  air  condensed  into  a  liquid  at  high  pres- 
sure and  low  temperature.     A  powerful  explosive. 

LIQUID  BRONZE— See  Bronzing  Liquid. 

LIQUID  CEMENT— A  rubber  cement  used  for  roofing. 

LIQUID  GAS— Obtained  by  the  dry  distillation  of  raw 
petroleum  and  by-products  of  the  lignite  and  oil  industries. 
The  vapors  and  gasses  are  obtained  by  the  decomposition  of 
the  material  in  retorts,  passed  through  tar  separators  and 
cleaned.  The  gases  are  liquified  by  cold  and  pressure,  car- 
bureted and  put  in  cylinders  for  shipment. 

LIQUEFIED  PETRGLEUM  GAS  is  liquid  condensed  by 
compressing  the  gas  from  petrol  oil  wells.  Classed  as  in- 
flammable. 

LIQUID  TANKS  (For  Gasolene  or  Other  Inflammables) 
— Burning  liquids  can  best  be  extinguished  by  forming  a 
blanket  of  gas  such  as  generated  when  carbon  tetra-chloride 
or  bi-carbonate  of  soda,  or  a  solid  is  formed  on  the  surface. 
This  cuts  off  the  supply  of  air  and  dilutes  or  breaks  up  the 
volume  of  natural  air  by  introducing  a  non-inflammable 
agent  with  it. 

Liquid  Storage  Tanks — The  size  of  tanks,  distance  from 
buildings  and  location  are  determined  by  local  underwriters 
and  governed  by  National  Board  rules.  Small  sized  tanks 
are  usually  buried  three  feet  under  ground,  and  below  all 
piping  connected  thereto,  set  on  a  solid  foundation  and  have 
filling  and  vent  pipes.  Tanks  should  be  of  all  steel  or 
wrought  iron,  all  joints  riveted,  soldered  or  caulked,  brazed 


?82  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

or  welded,  (soldering  alone  is  insufficient),  and  coated  on  the 
outside  with  rust-resisting  material  such  as  tar  or  asphaltum. 
The  fill  pipe  should  be  screened  with  fine  wire  mesh  and  the 
vent  pipe  not  less  than  three  feet  from  a  window  or  other 
opening.  Only  an  approved  pump  or  device  should  be  used 
to  draw  liquid  direct  to  receptacle,  and  such  liquids  not  to  be 
in  open  containers.     See  Gasoline. 

Portable  tanks  of  40  to  60  gallons  capacity  are  built  of  solid 
steel  3/16  inch  thick,  set  on  rubber-tired  wheels  with  ap- 
proved pump  and  vent  pipe.  These  latter  are  used  mainly  in 
garages. 

LIQUOR  in  barrels  will  yield  a  greater  salvage  if  the  bar- 
rels are  laid  on  their  sides  instead  of  ends,  as  this  method 
will  prevent  water  from  seeping  through  and  spoiling  the 
contents. 

Liquors — There  are  two  kinds,  fermented  and  distilled. 
All  spiritous  liquors  are  fermented.  Distilling,  a  hot  process, 
embraces  the  whole  process  of  making  of  potable  spirit 
from  cereals  and  grains.  This  process  includes  the  grinding 
of  the  grain,  mashing  and  fermentation,  and  thereafter  the 
separation  of  the  alcohol  from  the  other  constituents.  See 
Distilleries;  see  Rectifying. 

Refining — The  purification  by  redistillation  for  the  pur- 
pose  of  eliminating  impurities. 

Blending — Mixing  together,  by  a  cold  process,  whis- 
keys, spirits,  gins  and  other  such  articles. 

Clarifying — For  the  purpose  of  clearing  the  color  of 
wines  either  by  allowing  sufficient  time  for  the  liquor  to  set- 
tle or  by  hastening  the  process  by  adding  such  substances 
as  whites  of  eggs,  Spanish  clay,  gelatine  or  other  ingredients. 

Filtering — The  straining  of  liquors. 

Compounding    or    Rectifying — A  cold  mixing  process. 

Additional  hazards  in  distilleries  are  extract-making,  coop- 
ering, barrel  painting,  bottle  washing,  storage  and  hand- 
ling of  alcohol  in  large  quantities. 

LIQUORINE — An  approved  benzine  substitute  for  clean- 
ing printing  presses. 

LISTED  NON-FIBRE  STORAGE— Stores  used  for  the 
storage  of  general  merchandise.    In  New  York  city  the  rates 


vf  TTmWvt?ITHOGRAPHING  283 

are  figured  on  the  Exchange  Mercantile  Schedule  with 
an  allowance  of  35  per  cent,  for  base  rate  and  l7^^ 
for  the  building.  This  final  rate,  called  base  rate,  to  be  added 
to  the  rate  for  the  commodity  desired  to  be  stored.  For 
example:  Baking  powder  is  17c  +  10c  base,  makes  27c  proper 
rate  to  be  charged.     See  Warehouses;  see  Storage. 

LISTED  STORAGE  STORE— See  Warehouses. 

LITHARGE— Is  yellow  oxide  of  lead.  Sodium  Nitrate  is 
roasted  with  metallic  lead  which  form  nitrite  and  litharge. 

LITHOFRACTEUR  is  a  foreign  make  of  nitro-glycerine. 
Explosive. 

LITHOPONE — A  dry  powder  used  in  paint.  A  combina- 
tion of  zinc  and  lead. 

LITMUS — By  boiling  blue  cabbage  or  certain  lichens  in 
water,  a  blue  solution  is  obtained.  A  drop  of  acid  added  to 
this  liquid  turns  it  a  bright  red.  Used  in  experimental  labra- 
tories. 

LITHOGRAPH  CRAYON  DRAWINGS— Artists  draw  on 
stones  with  ordinary  crayon,  after  which  the  stone  is  treated 
with  a  solution  of  sour  gum  (gum  arabic  with  a  few  drops 
of  nitric  acid).  A  separate  stone  is  used  for  each  color. 
When  a  blue  color  is  desired,  instead  of  drawing  with  crayon 
they  first  sensitize  the  stone  with  a  solution  of  bichromate 
of  ammonia  and  white  of  egg,  then  photograph  on  it.  The 
stones  are  usually  cleaned  with  turpentine. 

LITHOGRAPHING— Most  stones  used  in  lithographing 
are  imported  from  Bavaria  and  come  in  all  sizes  from  those 
having  an  area  of  about  one  square  foot  to  those  which 
have  an  area  of  about  twenty  square  feet.  They  are  usually 
four  inches  in  thickness,  but  can  be  used  until  they 
are  not  less  than  one  inch  thick.  This  is  made  possible  by 
backing  them  with  slate  which  not  only  provides  the  re- 
quired thickness  but  also  strengthens  them  as  well.  The 
principle  of  lithographing  is  the  printing  from  a  flat  stone 
surface  so  treated  that  ink  will  adhere  to  the  design  only. 
To  get  this  result  it  is  necessary  to  have*  two  stones  called 
the  engraved  stone  and  transfer  stone.  The  process  is  as 
follows;  the  stone  is  polished  by  hand  with  pumice  and 
water  until  its  surface  is  perfectly  smooth.     It  is  then  given 


284  INSPECTION    AND    UNDEliWRITING 

a  coating-  with  a  gum  arabic  solution  which  is  left  on  the 
stone  to  protect  it.  The  stone  is  then  engraved  by  hand, 
and  in  doing  this  the  engraver  cuts  thru  the  hardened  gum 
solution  and  removes  it  while  the  rest  of  the  surface  re- 
mains protected  as  before.  When  the  gum  solution  on  the 
stone  is  kept  wet,  no  ink  will  adhere  to  it,  and  when  the  en- 
graved part  is  inked  no  water  will  mix  with  the  ink.  The 
stone  is  therefore  moistened  with  a  sponge  and  "rolled  up- 
or  inked  with  a  leather  ink  roller.  The  stone  is  now  com-- 
plete  and  is  called  the  engraved  stone,  but  as  mentioned  be- 
fore, the  printing  is  done  from  a  stone  having  a  flat  surface 
called  a  transfer  stone.  The  next  step  is  to  transfer  the  en- 
graving to  the  flat  surface  of  this  stone.  After  the  engraved 
stone  has  been  inked  a  piece  of  specially  prepared  paper  is 
laid  on  the  engraving  and  it  is  subjected  to  pressure  in  a 
hand  press.  The  engraving  is  now  transferred  to  the  paper 
which  is  then  laid  on  the  second  stone  with  the  ink-side 
down.  The  ink  under  pressure  eats  into  the  stone  which 
previously  has  been  polished  with  pumice  stone  and  water, 
but  has  not  been  protected  with  the  gum  solution.  The 
transfer  paper  is  now  removed  and  the  stone  is  covered  with 
the  gum  solution  which  adheres  to  those  positions  only 
which  have  not  received  the  ink  from  the  transfer  paper. 
The  stone  is  now  moistened  with  water  and  again  inked. 
After  being  proof  read  it  is  placed  in  the  cylinder  press  simi- 
lar to  those  described  above  and  is  ready  for  printing.  These 
presses  have  both  ink  and  water  rollers,  under  which  the 
stone  passes  back  and  forth  at  each  revolution. 

LITHOGRAPH  SHEETS  may  be  subject  to  spontaneous 
combustion  if  placed  in  large  piles  before  being  thoroughly 
dried.  This  heating  is  caused  by  the  linseed  or  other  dry- 
ing oils  in  the  ink. 

LITHOGRAPH  STONES  AND  PLATES— Very  suscep- 
tible to  fire  and  water  damage,  and  may  crumble  almost  to 
dust  when  so  damaged.     The  stones  are  imported. 

LIVE  RISER— The  pipe  leading  from  the  supply  tank 
with  mains  and  laterals  to  feed  the  sprinklers.  See  Sprink- 
lers. 


LODGING   HOUSES  285 

LIVESTOCK— See  Stables;  see  Lightning;  also  Blooded 
Livestock. 

LOCK  CORNER  MACHINES— For  cutting  tooth-like 
projections  on  the  end  of  pieces  which  are  to  form  the  con- 
current sides  of  a  box  or  drawer;  vertical  or  horizontal  man- 
drells  carry  gauges  of  saw-like  cutters  which  rotate  rapidly. 
Considerable  fine  refuse  is  made. 

LOCKERS— In  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New 
York  City,  a  fire  started  in  the  locker  room  where  the  artists 
store  their  canvases,  paints,  oils,  brushes,  etc.,  evidently 
caused  by  spontaneous  combustion.  All  lockers  should  be 
of  metal  on  raised  legs  with  open  screen  front  to  allow  ven- 
tilation. In  this  manner,  refuse  under  the  lockers  can  be 
readily  seen,  and  a  fire  can  be  seen  through  open  front. 
Oily  waste  in  pockets  of  workmen's  overalls  is  apt  to  cause  fire. 

LOCK-JOINTED— See  Fire  Doors. 

LOCOMOTIVES  for  Mill  Yard  Use— Steam  locomotives 
without  fires  are  now  being  used.  The  steam  is  pumped  in. 
to  a  reservoir  under  high  pressure.  The  tank  is  sufficiently 
large  to  run  the  engine  for  several  hours.  This  eliminates 
the  danger  of  spark  fires  from  the  ordinary  locomotives. 

LOCOMOTIVE  SPARK  HAZARD— This  hazard  is  an 
ever-present  one  along  railroads,  especially  where  bituminous 
coal  is  used  for  fuel.  Buildings,  especially  with  shingle  roofs, 
within  a  radius  of  one-half  mile  should  be  written  with  this 
hazard  in  mind. 

LODGING  HOUSES— Usually  of  ordinary  construction 
with  joist  floors,  open  or  poorly  enclosed  floor  openings. 
Individual  rooms  are  usually  enclosed  in  frame  partitions 
extending  part  way  to  ceiling  thereby  adding  considerable 
combustible  material  to  the  interior.  Hazards  are  pot  stoves 
for  heat,  furnaces,  use  of  benzine  for  exterminating  insects, 
swinging  gas  jets,  and  smoking.  Usually  located  in  the  poor- 
er sections.  The  fire  record  is  poor.  See  Boarding  Houses; 
also  Furnished  Rooms. 

LOFT — The  first  loft  of  a  building  is  the  first  floor  above 
the  grade. 

LOFT  BUILDING— Usually  interpreted  to  mean  one  oc- 
cupied by  omnibus  manufacturing  tenants. 


286  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

LOGWOOD  is  wood  from  which  logwood  dyes  and  ex- 
tracts are  made.  Received  in  this  country  in  varying  lengths 
to  6  feet  and  small  in  diameters.  The  surface  under  the 
bark  is  very  splintery.  When  on  fire  in  dry  state  it  burns 
very  rapidly  due  to  the  rough  surface,  smolders  a  long  time 
and  sparks  and  embers  fly  a  considerable  distance  in  a  wind. 
When  on  fire,  the  smoke  is  thick,  pungent,  opaque  (making 
nearby  objects  invisible)  and  hard  to  fight.  In  small  piles  it 
is  readily  extinguished,  but  in  large  piles  up  to  40  feet,  the 
fire  will  smolder  for  days. 

The  dye  is  extracted  from  logwood  as  follows:  The  logs 
are  chopped  into  chunks,  sawed  by  power  saws,  broken  into 
smaller  pieces  and  ground  in  machines.  It  is  cooked  in 
steam-heated  vats  where  it  remains  until  the  dye  is  cooked 
out  of  the  wood.  The  liquor  is  separated  from  the  mass  by 
centrifugal  extractors  and  barrelled.     See  Dye  Woods. 

LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  in  a  drawing  shows  the  ob- 
ject lengthwise  as  distinguished  from  transverse  or  cross. 

LOSS  ADJUSTMENTS— Many  of  the  unsatisfactory  loss 
adjustments  are  caused  by  the  failure  of  the  assured  to  make 
satisfactory  proof  of  the  value  of  the  stock  at  the  time  of 
the  fire.  Misguided  people  do  not  try  to  salvage  any  goods 
after  a  fire  by  separating  the  damaged  from  the  undamaged 
goods  for  fear  of  experiencing  trouble  with  the  insuring 
company.  Non-current  forms  are  an  ever  present  source 
of  trouble  to  an  adjuster.     See  Proof  of  Loss. 

LOSS  COST— The  relation  between  the  amount  of  prop- 
erty insured  in  a  certain  class  and  the  amount  paid  in  losses. 
Loss  cost  is  the  cost  of  carrying  a  certain  class  of  risk. 

LOSS  RATIO— The  percentage  that  the  amount  paid  in 
losses  bears  to  the  premiums  received  in  any  class  of  risk. 

LOST  POLICY  RECEIPT  (or  voucher)  is  a  release  given 
by  the  assured  to  a  company  when  the  original  policy  has 
been  lost,  thereby  releasing  the  company  from  obligation  un- 
der the  contract. 

LOUVRE — A  slatted  ventilator.  Used  in  place  of  a  win- 
dow. Built  of  metal  or  wood  slats,  slanting  to  permit  foul 
air  to  escape  from  a  room  but  preventing  fire  from  enter- 
ing from  the  shaft  because  the  openings  between  slats  slant 


LUMBER  YARDS  287 

inwardly.  When  used  in  shafts  should  be  of  metal  with 
riveted  rather  than  soldered  joints.  See  Diagram  on  Venti- 
lating Shafts. 

LOWER  FLANGE— The  under  part  of  "I"  beams.  These 
should  be  protected  with  at"  least  two  inches  of  approved 
insulation,  although  if  unprotected,  this  should  not  be  con- 
sidered a  serious  defect  in  construction  if  the  arch  springs 
from  the  lower  flange  and  protects  the  webs. 

LOW  WINES  are  classed  as  alcohol,  cologne  spirits, 
fusel   oil   and   other  alcohol   by-products.     See   distilleries. 

LUBRICATING  OIL— Manufacturing  consist  of  mixing 
different  grades  of  heavy  mineral  oil  with  some  animal  or 
vegetable  oil.  The  lower  the  flash  point,  the  more  likely  is 
the  atmosphere  surrounding  the  machinery  to  be  impreg- 
nated with  inflammable  vapors. 

LUDLOW  TYPOGRAPH  MACHINE— A  newly-invented 
machine  for  setting  lengths  of  lead  type  in  line  lengths  simi- 
lar to  monotype  work,  except  that  this  machine  is  smaller 
and  the  type  is  cast  against  a  brass  matrix. 

LUMBER — Second-hand  lumber  is  somewhat  better  than 
other  second-hand  stocks  as  there  is  always  a  market  for  it. 
As  a  class,  second-hand  lumber  yards  are  not  attractive  risks. 
They  usually  occupy  leased  ground. 

LUMBER  YARDS— Inspectors  should  state  whether  it  is 
hard  or  soft  wood;  note  the  height  of  piles,  and  whether 
piled  solid  or  with  open  spaces  between,  and  whether  piles 
rest  on  earth,  shavings,  sawdust  or  skids.  He  should  note 
the  aisle  space,  whether  lumber  exposes  windows  of  mill  or 
other  buildings,  prevailing  winds,  whether  yard  is  fenced  in. 
If  near  a  steam  railroad  there  is  danger  from  sparks  of  loco- 
motives. Lumber  yard  fires  are  hard  to  fight.  Rating 
bureaus  add  a  charge  for  exposure  to  lumber  if  the  mill  ex- 
poses the  lumber  yard,  unless  100  feet  distant. 

LYCOPODIUM— Obtained  from  certain  plants.  In  pow- 
dered form  it  is  inflammable. 

LYE — Common  name  for  Hydrate  of  Pbtash  or  Soda. 
•  LYDDITE  is  a  form  of  gun-cotton;   an   English  trinitro- 
phenol. 


M 

.  MACARONI  MFG.— The  farina  and  flour  are  received  in 
bags,  then  dumped  in  hopper  and  conveyed  to  storage  bins 
according  to  the  grade.  From  the  storage  bins,  it  is  brought 
by  worm  conveyor  to  the  scales  to  be  weighed  according  to 
the  batch  desired.  It  is  then  dumped  in  the  mixing  ma- 
chines which  are  directly  under  the  scale,  hoppered  to  the 
kneaders,  then  passed  to  the  rolling  machines  where  the  mass 
is  rolled  up  into  ^-inch-thick  cartridge  forms  and  dropped 
into  macaroni  cylinder  presses.  The  plungers  of  the  press 
are  forced  down  by  hydraulic  pressure,  squeezing  the  paste 
through  a  compartment  die  which  is  perforated  with  a  num- 
ber of  circular  holes  with  a  core  held  in  the  centre.  It  is 
dried  atmospherically  or  in  heated  rooms. 

MACARONI  SHOPS  in  basements  are  usually  crowded, 
and  have  unsafe  dry  rooms  or  heating  apparatus.  Many  of 
these  shops  employ  direct  coal  heat  for  drying  purposes. 

MACHINERY — Heavy  machinery  on  upper  floors,  even 
though  normally  substantially  supported  has  wrecked  many 
buildings  in  case  of  fire  because  the  supports  weaken  or  burn 
away.  Drip-pans  should  be  placed  under  all  oily  machinery 
to  catch  oil  drips  and  so  prevent  oily  floors. 

Machinery  in  Rapid  Motion — See  Shaftings. 

Machinery  (Second-hand) — Even  old  or  unused  usually 
has  a  market  value  unless  obsolete,  badly  damaged,  or  worn 
out,  in  which  case  it  has  only  the  value  of  old  iron. 

MACHINES  of  a  revolving  type,  gas-heated,  are  permit- 
ted to  have  flexible  rubber  connections  instead  of  rigid  iron 
piping. 

MACHINE  SHOPS— See  Metals  Workers. 

MADE  GROUND— See  Ground. 

MAGIC  METAL  POLISH— An  approved  benzine  substi- 
tute. 

MAGNESIUM   POWDER— Will  burn  readily  and  is  not. 

288 


MAIL  ORDER  CONCERNS  289 

easily  extinguished  by  watei?  A  stream  of  water  will  scat- 
ter the  burning  particles. 

MAGNET — A  magnetic  device  placed  in  grinding  mills, 
hoppers,  chutes,  feed  spouts,  etc.,  to  arrest  any  metal  particles 
and  prevent  them  from  entering  the  machine  where,  in  grind- 
ing or  milling,  they  may  create  a  spark  and  explode  the  dust 
in  the  mill. 

MAGNETO  MAKING— Machine  shop  hazard,  annealing, 
nickel-plating,  buffing,  testing,  sealing  with  wax.  Benzine  for 
cleaning  parts,  lacquering. 

MAGNOLIUM — An  alloy  of  aluminum  and  magnesium 
90-98  per  cent,  aluminum).  It  is  imported  in  pigs  or  ingots 
for  casting.  .      y>\  i 

MAGUEY— See  Fibres.        !?!        J 

MAIL  ORDER  CONCERNS— 'ffiey  carry  nearly  every 
variety  of  goods.  Where  no  manufacturing  is  done,  the 
premises  resemble  warehouses  with  open  stocks  and  on 
shelves.  Included  in  the  general  merchandise  there  may  be 
calcium  carbide,  automobile  tires,  rubber  cement,  small  arm 
ammunition,  lubricating  and  other  oils,  celluloid  articles. 
Large  concerns  usually  have  repair  departments  for  damaged 
merchandise. 

MALT  EXTRACTING— After  the  above  process  the  grain 
is  soaked  in  tanks  of  cold  water,  then  steam  is  turned  into 
the  tanks  to  cook  it,  then  evaporated  and  packed  in  kegs. 

MALT  ROASTING  (for  Breweries)— Malt  received  from 
breweries,  roasted  usually  in  an  ordinary  coffee  roaster  which 
consists  of  a  cylindrical  revolving  drum  equipped  with  agi- 
tator and  heated  by  direct  coal  heat.  It  is  drawn  off  in 
metal-cooling  pans,  where  the  heat  is  drawn  out  by  suction, 
then  "lofted"  by  cup-conveyor  to  a  hopper  which  feeds  a 
grinding  mill.  A  magnet  should  be  at  the  hopper  or  at  the 
rollers  of  the  mill  to  catch  metallic  pieces  such  as  nails.  See 
Brewery  Malt  Mills. 

MANGLE — An  ironing  machine  used  in  laundries  for  flat 
work.  They  are  large  steel  rollers,  clothrcovered  and  either 
steam  or  gas-heated. 

MANICURISTS— Usually  locate  in  private  dwellings  or 
apartments  or  in  barber  shops.     Usually  have  or  make  small 


From   "Live  Articles   on   Special  Hazards,"   pub.    by    "Weekly  Underwriter." 
Malt  House. 


MARBLE   WORKERS  291 

quantities  of  cosmetics  and  pomades.  At  times  use  alcohol 
or  gas  stoves.  If  in  a  dwelling,  and  not  over  three  hands 
employed,  with  the  owner  living  on  the  premises,  there  is  no 
extra  rate  charged  for  this  occupancy  in  New  York  City.  See 
Massage  Parlors. 

MANSARD — The  top  portion  of  the  outer  walls  which 
slope  to  the  roof.  The  backing  is  usually  of  wood  or  lath 
and  plaster  on  studding.  Termed  by  fire  fighters  as  "  a  lum- 
ber yard  up  in  the  air"  because  of  their  inability  to  locate 
the  seat  of  the  fire  once  it  gains  access  to  the  concealed 
space. 

MANUAL  ALARM — Usually  a  small  red  box  with  a  ring 
attachment  at  the  bottom,  which  if  pulled  down  sends  in  a 
fire  alarm. 

MAP  CLERK — A  junior  underwriter  whose  main  duty  is 
to  write  the  "lines"  on  the  map  so  that  the  company's  lia- 
bility can  be  seen  at  a  glance.  He  must  also  understand 
forms  and  rates  and  adjust  reinsurance.  See  Underwriter; 
see  Examiner. 

MARBLE  is  easily  damaged  by  fire.  Where  it  forms  any 
considerable  part  of  the  building  structure  such  as  marble 
fronts  or  facings,  underwriters  usually  cut  down  their  "line." 

MARBLE  WORKERS— Stone  and  granite  such  as  used  in 
buildings  are  included.  Work  is  sawing,  planing,  cutting, 
drilling,  polishing,  rubbing.  Polishing  is  done  by  machinery 
on  flat,  soft  stones,  using  a  mixture  of  dry  putty  and  oxalic 
acid  as  an  abrasive.  Glycerine  is  used  for  highly  polished 
stones.  Broken  pieces  are  cemented  with  plaster  of  Paris, 
beeswax  or  stick  shellac.  The  latter  two  are  usually  heated 
by  gas  blow  pipes.  Gas  or  gasoline  torches  are  used  for 
heating  lead  for  dowels.  Usually  occupy  large  area  frame 
buildings  heated  by  "salamanders."     See   Imitation   Marble. 

MARGARIC  ACID  is  obtained  from  hog  fat  and  potash. 

MARINE  GLUE — One  part  India  rubber,  20  parts  gum 
lac  and  12  parts  benzine. 

MARINE-LEG — Used  in  connection  with  grain  elevators 
located  on  water  fronts.  A  movable  elevator  leg,  so  ar- 
ranged that  grain  can  be  conveyed  from  the  hold  of  a  boat 
by  dipping  the  elevator  boot  into  the  liojd, 


2S12;  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

MARINE  INSURANCE— Is  a  contract  whereby  one 
party  for  a  specific  sum  agrees  to  indemnify  another  who  has 
an  interest  in  the  property  exposed  to  marine  risks,  against 
loss  incidental  thereto.  The  policy  covers  goods  from  port 
to  port  but  by  endorsement  they  may  be  covered  from  some 
place  in  the  interior  until  delivered  to  the  assured's  store  or 
warehouse  at  port  of  destination.  Almost  all  marine  con- 
tracts are  valued  policies. 

MARKED  OFF — An  expression  used  by  insurance  men 
when  an  application  or  policy  is  returned  to  the  company 
when  the  insurance  is  not  wanted. 

MARKETS  (Chicken) — Especially  where  killing  is  done 
are  usually  untidy  with  feathers,  guano  and  wooden  crates. 
Stoves  are  used  for  heat  and  for  heating  water.  Not  an  at^ 
tractive  class.  J  4AM 

MARKET  VALUE— See  Sound  Value.  -   '~    - 

MARSH  GAS— See  Fire  Damp. 

MASSAGE  PARLORS— Usually  in  connection  with  hair 
dressers  and  manicurists.  Use  electric  vibrators  for  massag- 
ing, electric  baths  and  various  other  electric  appliances. 
Some  are  connected  with  the  lighting  system  with  ordinary 
sockets.  Others  are  on  separate  circuits  or  run  by  storage 
batteries.  Alcohol  and  face  creams  are  used  extensively. 
Salves  are  mainly  heated  on  alcohol  stoves.     See  Manicurist. 

MASSICOT— Oxide  of  lead. 

MASTIC — A  resinous  substance  from  a  shrub.  Used  in 
varnish-making. 

MATCHES  (Manufacturing) — Many  different  processes 
are  employed.  One  of  the  common  being  a  cylinder  of  pine 
or  poplar  wood,  the  length  of  seven  matches,  which  has  been 
soaked  in  water  to  make  it  tough,  is  placed  in  a  lathe  which 
cuts  off  a  continuous  shaving,  the  thickness  of  a  match.  As 
this  shaving  comes  away  from  the  log,  it  is  cut  into  seven 
strips,  each  as  wide  as  a  match  is  long.  As  soon  as  the 
splints  are  separated. from  the  block,  they  are  seized  in  iron 
clamp  plates  which  form  an  endless  chain.  The  endless 
chain  carries  the  splints  across  a  steam-heated  drum  which 
warms  them  nearly  t6  the  temperature  of  paraffine  into  which 
they  are  dipped.    From  the  paraffine  bath  the  splints  move  on 


UTXHW/1.'  MATCHES 


293 


continuously  to  the  rollers  that  carry  the  "heading"  mixture, 
phosphorus,  chlorate  of  potash,  etc.,  and  as  the  matches 
are  carried  past  the  rollers  each  one  receives  a  red  or  blue 
head  as  the  case  may  be.  From  the  rollers  they  continue  on 
through  a  room  swept  by  a  blast  of  cold,  dry  air.  The 
matches  move  on  until  just  before  they  reach  the  starting 
point,  again  air  automatically  thrusts  them  out  and  places 
them  side  by  side  in  a  box. 

The  composition  of  match  heads  varies  a  great  deal  in  dif- 
ferent factories  and  consists  of  various  combinations  of  glue, 
rosin,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  chlorate  of  potash,  saltpetre, 
red  lead,  bichromate  of  potash,  nitrate  of  lead,  antimony  sul* 
phide  and   fine   sand. 


A  Prolific  Source  of  Fire  T^osses. 


The  sulphur  match  tip  is  made  of  a  paste  consisting  of 
chlorate  of  potash,  sulphur,  colophony,  vermillion  and  gum. 

The  "strike  anywhere"  match  tip  usually  contains  phos- 
phorus and  potassium  chlorate. 


2^4  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

The  "strike-on-box"  match  head  is  partly  composed  of 
potassium  chlorate  while  the  box  contains  red  phosphorus. 

Paper  match  heads  are  dipped  in  chlorate  of  potash,  amor- 
phous phosphorus,  sulphur  and  iron  oxide. 

Incomplete  reports  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers for  the  year  1915  show  a  loss  over  the  country  total- 
ing $4,324,596  due  to  matches. 

In  New  York  City  alone,  the  fire  department's  report  of 
1915  shows  that  there  were  1,346  fires  attributed  to  matches, 
causing  a  loss  of  $227,886. 

The  Underwriters*  Laboratories  of  Chicago  have  made  a 
careful  study  and  test  of  matches  and  now  issue  the  label 
service  covering  this  line  of  goods.  The  testing  covers  the 
subject  of  flying  heads,  ignition  temperatures,  stability  of 
head  and  composition,  afterglow,  strength  of  splint  and  meth- 
od of  packing. 

The  label  service  is  divided  into  two  classes.  Class  "A** 
is  the  "strike  on  the  box"  type,  where  the  match  is  struck  on 
a  prepared  surface  and  the  ignition  point  is  above  340  deg. 
F.  Class  "B"  is  the  so-called  "strike  anywhere"  match,  and 
the  ignition  point  is  above  300  deg.  F.  This  type  of  match 
is  double-dipped,  the  outside  bulb  being  inert  and  of  larger 
diameter  than  the  tip.  It  is  constructed  so  that  it  will  not 
ignite  from  friction  or  when  it  is  trod  upon.  The  splints  of 
both  types  of  matches  are  treated  to  prevent  afterglow,  and 
they  are  required  to  be  of  a  reasonable  strength. 

At  this  writing  there  is  only  one  manufacturer  who  has  ob- 
tained the  label  service.  This  concern  manufactures  both 
classes  of  approved  matches. 

The  hazard  from  the  careless  handling  of  matches  cannot 
be  too  greatly  emphasized  and  it  would  be  well  to  advocate 
stringent  laws  for  those  who  continue  to  use  them  with  utter 
disregard  for  the  loss  of  life  and  property  that  they  may 
cause. — (S.  T.  Skirrow,  "Live  Articles  on  Special  Hazards," 
The  Weekly  Underwriter.) 

MATTRESSES — Materials  used  are  tow,  shoddy,  sea  grass, 
cotton,  hair,  moss,  excelsior  and  fibres.  Work  consists  of 
picking  and  rolling  cotton  or  other  materials  in  pads,  filling 
and  tufting,  sewing  slip  covers.    They  may  also  assemble  and 


MECHANICS'   PRIVILEGE  295 

paint  bed  springs.  Hazards  are  cotton  and  fibre  picking, 
storage  of  upholstering  material,  dust  in  the  presence  of  open 
lights,  loose  materials  about  the  premises.  In  small  shops, 
coal  stoves  are  used  for  heat.  Unless  the  various  processes 
are  segregated,  the  entire  floor  may  become  covered  with 
dust.     A  very  poor  fire  record  class. 

MATZOTH  BAKERY— Matzoths  are  made  of  flour  and 
cracker  dust.  Bakers  use  sifters,  cleaners  and  occasionally 
mill  flour.  The  baking  oven  is  brick  enclosed  with  fire  box 
underneath.  The  dough  is  placed  on  a  revolving  metal  drum 
over  the  fire  and  baked  in  one  revolution.  When  baked,  the 
crackers  drop  on  a  woven  cloth  belt  conveyor  which  takes 
them  to  the  packing  room.  Some  of  the  crackers  may  be 
burning  and  if  not  removed  from  the  conveyor  are  carried 
to  the  packing  room  where  they  might  set  fire  to  combustible 
material.  Several  fires  have  been  attributed  to  this  cause, 
and  also  to  friction  in  dust  box  of  flour  mill.  (Poor  fire 
record.)     See  Bakeries. 

MECHANICS'  PRIVILEGE— Allows  mechanics  to  be  em- 
ployed in  the  building  for  ordinary  alterations  and  repairs 
without  limit  of  time.  Just  when  and  where  a  builders  risk 
condition  takes  place  is  sometimes  rather  a  difficult  question 
to  decide,  but  most  underwriters  claim  that  so  long  as  the 
building  in  not  weakened  or  added  to  but  merely  altered  by 
means  of  painting,  carpentering  and  other  interior  work,  the 
mechanics*  privilege  is  all  that  is  necessary.  See  Builders' 
Risk. 

MEDICINAL  OILS— See   Mineral  Oil. 

MELINITE — A  powerful  explosive. 

MELTING  FURNACES— Called  "pot"  furnaces.  Used  by 
glass  manufacturers  and  are  generally  circular  in  form  with 
an  inside  lining  bench  and  crown  of  fire  clay  blocks  and 
brick  and  an  outside  enclosure  tapering  above  the  crown 
forming  a  chimney  stack.  The  base  is  usually  brick  about 
10  feet  thick  with  brick  arched  cave  or  tunnel.  They  use 
soft  coal  for  heat.  There  are  a  number  of  openings  in  these 
furnaces  which  receive  the  crucible  or  pot  which  contains 
the  "batch"  of  glass  ingredients.  Aside  from  the  setting, 
the  only  hazard  of  any  importance  is  the  woodwork  which 


296  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

should  be  removed  to  at  least  18  inches. — The  Weekly  Un- 
derwriter. 

MELTING  POINT  of  metals.     See  Fusion  Point. 

MEMORIAL  WINDOWS  are  part  of  the  building  and 
may  form  considerable  of  building  loss  in  case  of  fire.  Few 
companies  will  write  them  as  separate  insurance. 

MEN'S  FURNISHINGS— Susceptible  stock.  When  col- 
ored goods  are  water  damaged,  the  colors  either  run  or 
goods  become  mildewed  and  prove  total  loss.  White  goods 
mildew  but  these  can  be  washed.  Cheap  jewelry  may  be  in- 
cluded which  tarnishes. 

MENTHOL — Resembles  camphor.  Obtained  from  oil  of 
peppermint  by  cooling;  volatile. 

MERCANTILE  BUILDING— One  occupied  by  mercantile 
tenants  such  as  those  having  stocks,  offices  and  very  light 
manufacturing. 

MERCANTILE  RATING— When  the  financial  rating  of  a 
person  or  firm  does  not  appear  in  any  of  the  mercantile  rat- 
ing books  it  usually  indicates  lack  of  capital  or  credit  but 
may  only  signify  that  the  bureau  has  no  information  on 
which  to  base  a  rating.  See  Trade  Reports;  also  Blank 
Rating. 

MERCERIZED  GOODS— Water  will  practically  ruin 
stocks  of  this  nature,  which  are  also  severely  damaged  by 
dampness. 

MERCERIZING — A  process  which  imparts  a  gloss  or  lus- 
tre to  cotton  fibres  by  treating  the  tightly  stretched  fibres 
with  caustic  soda,  followed  by  washing  and  drying. 

MERCHANDISE  SPECIFIC  FORM— In  writing  insur- 
ance under  this  form,  add  to  the  base  rate  of  warehouse,  the 
amount  named  in  the  alphabetical  list.  Specify  the  mer- 
chandise by  name  and  if  the  rate  is  for  a  particular  kind  of 
package,  mention  the  package.    See  Storage;  see  Warehouses. 

MERCHANT  POLICE— In  place  of  the  ordinary  watch- 
man, are  hired  by  owners  of  merchandise,  usually  on  docks 
and  piers,  to  prevent  thievery.  The  merchant  police  are  re- 
sponsible for  all  goods  ^ lost  and  therefore  are  always  alert. 

MERCHANT  TAILOR— Does  custom  work,  and  may  also 
have  stock.     See  Custom  Tailor. 


METAL  WORKERS  297 

MERCURIC  CHLORIDE— Corrosive  sublimate,  heavy 
white  salt,  no  fire  hazard. 

MERCURY  is  the  only  metal  which  is  in  liquid  form.  It  is 
white,  having  a  brilliant  metallic  lustre.  Boils  at  660  deg.  F. 
Alcohol  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  mercury  in  thermometer 
where  very  low  temperatures  prevail. 

^  MERCURY  FULMINATE— Produced  by  solution  '  of 
nitrate  of  mercury  and  alcohol.  Powerful  explosive. 
^^'  METAL  BEDS  AND  SPRINGS— Busiest  season  April 
to  July,  September  to  November.  Metal  working  hazards 
including  japanning  and  enameling.  Use  considerable  excel- 
sior for  packing.     (Poor  fire  record  class.) 

METALIZING — Dipping  articles  in  molten  metal. 

METALLIC  POTASSIUM  (and  sodium)  are  kept  by  near- 
ly all  drug  houses.  Should  be  kept  in  oil,  because  if  water 
^cpmes  in  contact  with  them,  flames  result,  as  the  reaction 
releases  hydrogen. 
'metallic  POWDERS  such  as  aluminum  and  bronze 
have  a  great  affinity  for  oxygen  and  are  considered  dan- 
gerous. 

METAL  SIGNS  (Lithographed)— Sheet  metal  working 
and  varnishing  hazard.  Benzine  thinned  paint  used  in  dip 
tanks.  A  roller  varnishing  machine  is  sometimes  used  with 
celluloid  varnish.     Dry  rooms  same  as  lacquer  dry  rooms. 

METAL  TUBING  (Manufacturing)  embraces  the  hazards 
of  gas-heated  brazers,  roller  mills,  stamping  presses,  swag- 
ing machines  and  heavy  metal  working  machinery.  Floors 
usually  oily  and  greasy. 

'*  METAL  WORKERS— Machines  used  are  lathes,  shapers, 
'Aliilling  machines,  drill  presses,  emery  wheels  and  similar  de- 
vices. If  the  floors  are  of  wood,  the  machines  should  set 
on  metal  with  edges  curbed  to  prevent  oil  soaking  into  the 
wood.  Waste  used  around  machinery  when  oily  should  be 
kept  in  self-closing  cans  with  legs  so  that  the  bottom  of  the 
can  is  off  the  floor.  Iron  filings  should  be  kept  in  similar 
receptacles.  Some  shops  do  lacquering  or  japanning.  Only 
a  day's  supply  of  such  materials  should  be  kept  on  hand  in 
the  building.  Dry  rooms  for  lacquered  parts  should  be  stand- 
ard in  construction. 


2M  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

METHYL  ALCOHOL— See  Wood  Alcohol. 

METHYLOXALIC  ACID— Is  recovered  from  the  prod- 
ucts of  dry  distillation  of  wood;  inflammable. 

MEZZANINE  FLOOR— A  gallery  or  half  floor,  of  small- 
er area  than  other  floors  of  the  building. 

MICA — Manufacturing  such  goods  as  electrical  insulators, 
lamp  chimneys,  etc.  There  are  but  few  plants  in  the  United 
States.  The  stock  of  mica  is  received  in  rough  state  from 
mines,  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  worked  up  into  several  lay- 
ers using  shellac  as  a  cement,  pressed  into  sheets  by  hy- 
draulic presses,  dried  in  ovens,  cut  to  size,  formed  in  steam 
moulds.  They  are  gradually  cooled  in  these  same  moulds 
by  circulating  water  jackets,  then  dried  in  ovens,  edges 
trimmed  with  jig  saws  and  surface  ground  down  on  car- 
borundum wheels  and  the  seams  cemented  with  shellac. 
When  put  in  ovens  to  dry,  the  mica  is  placed  on  a  sheet 
of  metal  previously  oiled.  Metal  parts  are  riveted  on  by 
foot  power  presses.  Hazards  embrace  light  metal  working, 
machine  shop  for  repairs,  storage  of  shellac  and  alcohol,  dry- 
ing ovens,  steam  pipes  at  mould  tables  in  contact  with  wood. 

MICALITE— A  substitute  for  sheet  celluloid.  Non-in- 
flammable. 

MICE — Have  long  been  credited  with  causing  fires  and  al- 
though experiments  with  mice  and  matches  have  been  un- 
successful, the  following  is  a  true  report  of  a  concrete  case: 
A  fire  was  discovered  under  a  floor  in  a  residence.  A  large 
quantity  of  water  was  poured  in.  When  firemen  arrived  they 
took  up  the  floor  boards  and  discovered  a  large  nest  between 
the  beams  and  in  it  were  acorns,  chestnuts,  pieces  of  cloth, 
plumbers'  waste,  cheese,  and — half  of  a  burnt  match.  See 
Rats. 

MILK  DEPOTS— High  pressure  boiler  hazard,  which  sup- 
plies steam  for  pasteurizers,  sterilizers,  bottle  washers  and 
dry  rooms.  Crate  or  box-making  for  bottles,  tinsmith  shop 
for  repairing  of  cans,  refrigerating  machinery,  printing  labels 
and  caps  are  hazards  found  at  some  plants.  The  fire  record 
is  not  very  good.     See  Dairy  Farms;  see  Creameries. 

MILL  AGENT— An  agent  who  sells  the  product  of  mills 


MILL  CONSTRUCTION  2M 

to  the  trade,  receiving  a  commission  for  same,  although  .g.opcjs 
are  shipped  and  billed  direct  to  the  buyer.  '..;:,   .,,.-,',, 

MILL  CONSTRUCTION— Briefly,  mill  construction  em- 
braces the  following:  (1)  Consists  of  making  a  fire  stop  of 
heavy  plank  between  stories  so  that  the  spread  of  fire  may 
be  retarded.  This  necessitates  doing  away  with  all  openings 
in  floors  such  as  belt  holes,  stairways,  elevator  wells,  or  all 
such  must  be  in  cut-oflf  towers.  (2)  The  timbers  and  floor- 
ing required  to  give  the  necessary  stability  and  strength  are 
arranged  so  as  to  offer  as  smooth  a  surface  and  as  few  cor- 
ners, on  which  fire  may  feed,  as  practical,  also  doing  away 
with  all  concealed  spaces  in  walls  or  floors.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  using  very  heavy  floor  timbers  spaced  8  to  12 
feet  apart  and  floors  of  3  to  4-inch  plank  with  single  or 
double  top  flooring.  Roof  to  be  3  inches  thick  and  covered 
with  gravel  or  tin.  In  a  building  of  this  character  fire  can 
be  readily  reached  with  water  from  either  hose  stream  or 
sprinklers.  (3)  Floors  must  be  tight  as  well  as  heavy  so  as 
to  prevent  fire,  smoke  or  water  from  working  through.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  a  mill  building  and 
one  to  which  sufficient  attention  is  not  paid.  Due  to  poorly 
seasoned  plank  or  poor  workmanship  openings  are  left 
around  posts,  at  side  walls  or  elswhere  and  fire  smoke  or 
water  spreads  through  these  openings  destroying  or  impair- 
ing the  efficiency  of  the  floor.  See  Bay  Construction;  see 
Compromise  Mill. 

•      MILL  WASTE— Odds  and  ends  from  fabric  mills,  mace- 
rated and  bleached  to  obtain  a  resemblance  to  cotton. 

MILLINERY  is  liable  to  include  almost  anything  from  a 
delicate  chiffon  to  a  stuffed  bird,  but  can  be  counted  on  to 
give  practically  100  per  cent,  loss  in  nearly  every  fire  starting 
in  this  class,  because  the  salvage,  once  the  stock  is  smoked  or 
wet,  is  practically  nil. 

MINE  FIRES  are  caused  by  ignition  of  timbers,  wooden 
stoppings  and  brattic  cloths,  hay  or  oil-soaked  material  by 
open  torches,  the  ignition  of  coal  by  blown-out  shots,  or  ex- 
plosions of  fire  damp  or  coal  dust,  or  the  improper  use  of 
explosives;  surface  fires  communicating  to  the  mine  through 
the  shaft  or  tunnel,  underground  furnaces  and  boiler  plants. 


300  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

ignition  by  friction  on  oily  wooden  rollers  or  rope  haulage- 
ways;  fires  occasioned  by  spontaneous  combustion  of  coal, 
timber  or  greasy  waste.  Most  effective  means  of  exploring 
and  combating  fire  is  the  oxygen  helmet.  Article,  H.  M.  Wil- 
son, Insurance  library. 

Mine  Fires  spread  rapidly.  Unless  extinguished  within 
a  few  minutes  from  the  start,  the  closing  of  the  section  or 
mine  often  becomes  necessary.  Mines  should  be  patrolled  by 
lookouts  and  employees,  especially  English-speaking,  and  the 
more  intelligent  should  be  organized  into  a  fire  brigade  for 
instant  service. 

MINERAL  BURNING  OIL— Obtained  by  the  fractional 
distillation  of  crude  petroleum  and  shale  oil. 

MINERAL  INDIA-RUBBER  NAPHTHA— Produced 
during  the  process  of  refining  tar  by  sulphuric  acid. 

MINERAL  LUBRICATING  OILS— See  Hydrocarbon. 

MINERAL  OIL  FOR  MEDICINAL  PURPOSES— Petro- 
leum oil  products  and  Russian  white  oils  are  used.  Work  in 
compounding  risks  include  mixing  the  oil  with  Fullers  earth, 
then  refining,  distilling,  filtering,  all  by  steam  heat.  Bar- 
relling, bottling,  labelling,  painting  barrel  heads  and  chemical 
laboratory  for  testing.     Premises  usually  very   oily. 

MINERAL  OILS  are  usually  products  of  coal  tar  and  pe- 
troleum. They  are  considered  more  hazardous  than  the  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  oils.  The  most  important  thing  to  know  is 
the  flash  point.  If  not  mixed  with  vegetable  or  animal  oils 
are  not  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion. 

MINERAL  WATERS  AND  BEVERAGES— Work  con- 
sists of  making  flavoring  extracts,  charging  or  carbonizing 
water  with  marble  dust,  straining,  filtering,  bottling,  labelling, 
packing.  Use  steam  or  gas-heated  kettles,  steam-heated  bot- 
tle washers.  Bottles  are  packed  in  excelsior  or  straw  jackets. 
See  Bottlers. 

MINERAL  WOOL— The  product  obtained  by  forcing  a  jet 
of  steam  or  air  against  a  stream  of  molten  slag  or  molten 
rock. 

MIRROR  BACKING— An  amalgam  of  mercury  and  tin. 
Tin  foil,  i.  e.,  tin  leaf,  is  first  applied  over  the  glass,  then 


MOLASSES   WASTE   LIQUID  SOI 

mercury  is  poured  upon  this,  and  it  unites  with  the  tin,  mak- 
ing an  amalgam. 

MIRRORS — (Electroplating  Mirrors) — A  new  method  of 
silvering  mirrors  consists  of  depositing  the  metal  on  the  glass 
by  means  of  a  high  potential  electric  current.  Electrical 
hazard. 

MITRE  SAWS — Used  by  woodworkers  to  cut  any  kind  of 
pieces  at  an  angle. 

MIXED  ACIDS — Mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids. 
If  in  contact  with  organic  matter  will  cause  fire. 

MOLASSES  DEALERS  make  rock  candy  at  times  using 
steam  vacuum  kettles.  They  may  also  have  benzine  for  thin- 
ning paint  for  barrel  heads. 

MOLASSES  REFUSE— The  ashes  of  molasses  refuse 
(used  for  fuel  in  molasses  or  sugar  factories),  contains  about 
1-3  potash  and  5  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid.  Is  used  for 
fertilizer. 

MOLASSES  WASTE  LIQUID— Used  in  fertilizer.  The 
waste  liquid  derived  from  molasses  contains  about  60  per 
cent,  water  and  40  per  cent,  substance.  The  body  portion  is 
now  reclaimed  by  the  following  process:  Waste  pumped  into 
large  wood  tanks,  then  to  steam-heated  still  evaporators  with 
condenser  apartments.  The  heavy  liquid  is  then  run  into 
large  storage  tanks,  and  then  flowed  to  a  hopper,  into  which 
ground  phosphate  is  added.  It  is  then  mixed  and  dried.  Con- 
sidered non-hazardous  if  fuel  oil  system  for  dryers  is  ap- 
proved and  no  grinding  of  phosphate  on  the  premises.  Mo- 
lasses-soaked floors  burn  fiercely. 

MOLLACH — A  benzine-thinned  stain  used  by  leather 
goods  manufacturers. 

MOLYBDENITE — Ore  of  molybdenum  which  is  used  to 
give  hardness  to  steel. 

MONITOR — A  raised  roof  structure  of  various  shapes  and 
sizes,  with  glass  sides.  Sometimes  called  "Texas"  or  "Lan- 
tern Skylights." 

MONOLITH — A  single  piece  or  block  of  stone,  as  a  sin- 
gle piece  stone  column. 

MONOLITHIC  CONSTRUCTION— An  all  reinforced 
concrete  building. 


303  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

MONO-NITRATES  are  not  necessarily  dangerous. 

MONOTYPE  MACHINE— Used  by  printers  for  casting 
and  setting  up  lead  type  in  single  letters.  First  a  key  board 
is  used,  where  the  different  styles  of  type,  spacing  and  align- 
ment are  indicated  by  perforating  a  roll  of  paper.  This  paper 
roll  is  put  in  the  casting  machine.  Air  pressure  blowing 
through  the  perforations  of  different  sizes  and  spaces  regu- 
lates the  machine  operation  so  that  the  lead  type  is  auto- 
matically cast  and  set  up.  Usually  motor  driven.  The  lead 
pot  should  have  rigid  iron  connection,  and  floor  under  ma- 
chine should  be  metal  clad.     See  Printers. 

MONTAN  WAX— A  soft  coal  distillate  from  Austria; 
melts  at  near  180  deg.  F.     Not  hazardous. 

MOPS — Prof.  John  H.  Bryan,  principal  of  the  Ward  School 
at  Marion,  Ohio,  on  several  occasions  found  mops  used  by 
the  janitor  in  oiling  the  floor  burned  to  ashes,  it  being  evi- 
dent that  the  building  each  time  narrowly  escaped  being 
burned.  To  prove  the  nature  of  the  trouble,  he  saturated 
several  mops  with  the  floor  oil  and  hung  them  where  there 
were  no  inflammable  surroundings.  A  mop  saturated  with  oil 
at  5  p.  m.  was  found  to  be  very  warm  at  7  a.  m.,  and  in  one 
instance  he  watched  a  mop  until  it  burst  into  flames.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  ill-fated  Collinwood  school  fire  may  have 
started  in  this  manner. 

MORAL  HAZARD— The  moral  hazard  of  a  risk  is  most 
pertinently  described  by  Colonel  Ducat  as  'Hhe  danger  from 
frictioh  caused  by  high  insurance  and  low  depreciated  stocks 
and  property  coming  together.  And  just  the  difference  be- 
tween what  would  have  been  the  fire  loss  with  no  insurance 
and  the  fire  loss  under  insurance  would  be  the  moral  hazard 
of  the  risk." 

Unoccupied  dwellings  outside  of  the  police  protection  of 
cities  or  towns,  slept  in  once  in  a  while  by  caretakers,  which,, 
by  the  way,  is  not  dwelling  occupancy  unless  approved  by  . 
the  agent.  They  are  open  to  tramps,  subject  to  carelessness 
of  boys  and  like  the  family-deserted  farm  dwelling,  are  haz- 
ardous risks. 

Ex-factory  buildings  that  may  have  cost  thousands  of  dol- 
lars, but  which,  with  their  machinery  removed,  have  been  pur- 


MORAL  HAZARD  fm 

chased  for  a  few  hundred  dollars  and  converted  into  barns 
and  warehouses.  Such  buildings  are  liable  to  be  overvalued 
and  insured  for  more  than  they  are  worth. 

Stocks  of  merchandise  purchased  at  assignee's  sale  for  65- 
cents-on-the-dollar  invoice,  and  insured  at  85-cents-on-a-dol- 
lar  invoice,  because  the  insured  got  a  bargain.  Careful  con- 
sideration of  the  property  as  to  present  cash  value  from  an 
insurance  point  of  view  is  necessary. 

Long  distance  over  the  hills  and  far  away  from  the  agency 
risks^  on  which  the  commission  will  not  pay  the  agent  for 
surveying  them,  and  the  amount  of  premium  will  not  warrant 
the  expense  of  the  special  for  inspecting  them.  When  in- 
sured "unsight,  unseen,"  as  boys  swap  pocket  knives  they  are 
often  sold  (by  fire)  in  a  manner  that  causes  the  local  agent 
to  think  the  company  carrying  the  business  may  also  have 
been  sold. 

Property  that  has  outlived  its  usefulness,  that  is  unoc- 
cupied, that  is  not  adapted  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
intended,  that  is  overvalued,  that  is  offered  at  forced  sale, 
or  that  is  at  a  distance  from  the  agency,  should  be  avoided; 
or,  if  written  after  full  knowledge  of  the  facts  pertaining  to  it 
have  been  obtained,  the  amount  of  insurance  thereon  should 
be  based  upon  commercial  cash  values,  instead  of  upon  the 
cost  of  replacement,  and  rates  should  be  made  to  cover  the 
hazard. 

In  betting  $1,000  under  a  policy  of  insurance  against  $7.50 
premium  or  any  other  amounts,  unsatisfactory  losses  can 
often  be  avoided  by  keeping  an  eye  on  the  possible  amount 
of  loss  instead  of  on  the  small  amount  of  premium.  It  is  also 
an  excellent  plan  in  such  cases  to  carefully  examine  the  other 
fellow's  stake  before  accepting  the  bet. 

Losses  under  the  conditions  stated  are  not  necessarily 
criminal;  they  can  arise  from  legitimate  carelessness  that 
would  not  occur  if  the  insurance  was  70  or  75  per  cent,  of  the 
commercial  value  instead  of  the  commercial  value  being  less 
than  75  per  cent,  of  the  insurance. 

Moral  Hazard— (By  Samuel  R.  Weed,  in  "The  Week- 
ly Underwriter.")  What  is  that  intangible,  but  important, 
part  of  fire  risk  which  is  commonly  called  the  moral  hazard? 


aw  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING  ^% 

It  exists  in  other  lines  of  business,  and,  in  fact,  it  is  omni- 
present in  all  vocations  where  financial  responsibility  is  in- 
volved, and  is  frequently  a  synonym  for  a  form  of  dishonesty. 
If  we  hear  of  a  bank  or  a  stock  broker  or  a  merchant  who  is 
dishonest  we  fj^equently  describe  his  condition  as  overbur- 
burdened  with  "too  much  moral  hazard."  Consequently  we 
must  understand  at  the  outset  that  moral  hazard  is  a  risk 
which  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  permeates  all  kinds  of  busi- 
ness. It  is  the  same  as  short  weights  in  the  grocery,  or  coal 
yards;  it  is  the  same  as  misrepresentation  in  mxcrchants* 
transactions  or  downwright  fraud  in  manufacturing,  or  any 
other  dishonest  proceeding  to  deceive  the  public  on  the  part 
of  the  man  who  has  something  to  sell  and  finds  a  market 
among  the  innocent  purchasers.  In  the  majority  of  cases 
there  are  some  ways  of  discovery  and  detection,  and  often 
of  punishment,  but  in  fire  insurance  the  moral  hazard  risk 
goes  down  much  deeper  because  it  is  a  long-drawn-out  proc- 
ess of  crime  which  may  be  conceived  months  or  years  before 
it  is  actually  committed,  and  it  is  more  generally  suspected 
than  proved.  It  is,  however,  sometimes  confirmed  by  cir- 
cumstantial evidence,  but  even  then  the  victim  has  no  redress. 
It  is  intangible  because  we  have  to  search  into  the  inner  mo- 
tives of  man  and  go  below  the  surface  before  finding  any  im- 
portant proof.  Attempts  to  describe  it  in  general  terms  have 
often  been  made,  but  the  difficulty  of  a  description  applicable 
to  each  case  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  no  two  instances  are 
precisely  alike.    .    .    . 

There  are  certain  questions  which  should  be  answered  by 
the  agent,  or  which  he  should  answer  for  himself,  which  will 
assist  him  materially  in  forming  a  correct  judgment  whether 
the  insurance  seeker  is  a  safe  subject  for  the  company: 

1.  Has  the  applicant  been  long  established  in  business  in 
the  place?  If  not,  is  he  a  resident  or  a  newcomer,  and  if  the 
latter,  where  was  he  formerly  located,  and  why  did  he 
change? 

2.  Does  his  business  appear  to  be  prosperous?  Has  he 
good  local  credit?  Have  any  of  his  notes  been  protested  by 
the  local  banks?  Has  he  ever  failed,  and  if  so,  upon  what 
terms  did  he  settle  with  his  creditors? 


MORAL  HAZARD  305 

3.  Was  he  ever  burned  out?  Where  and  how  did  the  fire 
originate?  Was  he  insured,  and  if  so,  did  he  have  any  trou- 
ble in  settlement  with  the  insurance  companies?  Are  the 
same  companies  willing  to  insure  him  again?  An  inquiry  ad- 
dressed to  your  head  office  will  often  bring  out  this  informa- 
tion, which  is  inaccessible  at  your  own  residence. 

4.  Is  the  insured  a  woman?  Or  is  the  active  manager  do- 
ing business  as  agent  for  his  wife,  and  if  for  another,  for 
whom?  Has  the  present  owner  or  manager  of  the  business 
ever  been  connected  with  anyone  who  has  suffered  from  fire? 

5.  Is  the  business  of  a  declining  class?  Are  the  premises 
poorly  located  in  the  town  for  profit?  Is  the  building  out  of 
repair?  Has  there  been  any  difference  with  the  landlord, 
and  is  the  owner  of  the  building  a  desirable  person  to  insure? 

6.  Has  the  applicant  suffered  from  strikes  or  differences 
with  labor  unions,  or  been  publicly  or  privately  threatened 
with  damage  by  strikers  or  discharged  workmen?     .     .     . 

The  companies  as  a  rule  dislike  to  insure  property  in  the 
name  of  a  woman  unless  it  be  one  of  the  small  stocks  which 
may  properly  be  managed  by  her  sex,  such  as  a  retail  haber- 
dashery or  a  dressmaking  stock.  But  the  trouble  with  a 
woman  in  the  case  lies  in  the  probability  that  she  is  being 
used  as  a  mask  for  somebody  else.  It  is  surprising  how 
many  cases  turn  up  where,  by  the  use  of  a  woman's  initials 
only,  companies  are  deceived  by  the  supposition  that  it  is  a 
masculine  whom  they  are  insuring.  I  know  an  examiner  for 
an  important  city  company  who  invariably  sends  out  an  in- 
quiry when  initials  only  appear  for  the  full  name  of  the  per- 
son or  persons  insured.  He  uses  this  form  of  query:  "Is  the 
'insured  male  or  female?  If  a  female,  is  she  married,  and  if 
so,  what  is  the  full  name  of  her  husband?  If  a  widow,  please 
state  the  fact."  This  examiner  once  told  me  that  in  the  course 
of  five  years  he  had  turned  down  several  daily  reports  be- 
cause he  learned  that  the  insured  was  of  the  feminine  gender, 
and  what  is  still  more  remarkable,  at  least  one  in  ten  of  the 
risks  on  which  policies  had  been  canceled  .for  this  reason 
had  subsequently  burned.  Probably  this  should  be  called  a 
"suspected  moral  hazard"  in  which  the  woman  is  not  directly 
to  blame,  and  if  the  whole  truth  were  known  it  would  be 


^^  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

found  a  man  profited  by  the  loss  of  such  a  risk  far  more  than 
the  woman  whose  name  was  used  as  a  cloak  for  the  man's 
insurance.  These  instances  are  easily  connected  with  incen- 
.  diarism,  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  many  of  them  belong  to 
some  of  the  worst  classes  of  moral  hazard  which  have  ever 
come  to  light. 

I  presume  you  will  be  surprised  when  I  assert  that  there 
is  a  new  kind  of  moral  hazard  affecting  the  business  of  fire 
underwriting  now  in  vogue  quite  unknown  twenty-five  years 
ago.  I  mean  a  sort  of  reverse  action  of  the  moral-hazard 
principle  succeeding  a  fire  quite  apart  from  its  origin.  I  be- 
lieve the  experience  of  the  last  twenty  years  has  demonstrat- 
ed that  many  an  honest  loss  has  been  turned  into  a  dishonest 
loss  by  the  temptation,  or  whatever  else  you  choose  to  call 
it,  to  indulge  in  crookedness  directly  aroused  by  the  fire. 
Somehow  the  underwriters  are  often  treated  as  easy  marks 
who  can  be  plundered  by  fraudulent  claims  and  robbed  of 
large  sums  by  schemes  to  cover  up  the  real  loss  with  a  layer 
of  fraud  which  sometimes  escapes  detection.  I  believe  that 
the  discovery  of  such  schemes  is  generally  possible  through 
patience  and  perseverance,  as  well  as  by  skillful  handling  of 
the  testimony.  Some  very  remarkable  evidences  of  this  kind 
of  moral  hazard  have  been  gathered  by  our  loss  committee, 
and  the  former  manager,  Mr.  Robb,  could,  if  he  would,  tell 
you  of  one  very  extraordinary  case  in  the  surrender  of  pol- 
icies for  a  large  amount  upon  a  stock  of  plate  glass  in  this 
city  without  any  payment  at  all,  after  a  most  elaborate 
scheme  of  fraud  had  been  prepared  which  was  exposed  by 
accident.  One  of  the  links  in  the  chain  was  weak,  and  that 
broke  down  all  the  connecting  links.  I  am  obliged  to  with- 
hold the  particulars  of  this  case,  but  I  believe  it  was  one 
where  the  rascality  really  followed  the  fire. 

The  temptation  to  swell  loss  claims  sometimes  overtakes 
men  who  ar«  esteemed  honest  and  upright  in  all  the  walks 
of  life.  The  peculiar  view  which  some  people  hold  regarding 
the  value  of  their  property  after  the  damage  frequently  leads 
to  downright  perjury,  a  phase  of  moral  hazard  which  is  gen- 
erally created,  promoted,  suggested  and  carried  forward  by 
the  new  profession  known  as  the  public  adjusters.     I  wish  it 


MOTION   PICTURE   BOOTHS  507 

were  possible  to  take  up  the  record  of  every  loss  handled  by- 
public  adjusters  in  the  last  ten  years.  The  revelation  would, 
I  am  sure,  astonish  you.  <7i; 

MORDANTING — Means  fixing  the  colors  of  the  dyes  'so 
as  to  thoroughly  impregnate  the  material. 

MORTGAGEE  CLAUSE  (full  contribution)— This  clause 
is  usually  placed  on  policies  covering  the  second  and  third 
mortgagee's  interest.  The  object  of  this  clause  is  to  make  all 
policies  contribute  their  proportion  of  loss  in  case  of  fire.  If 
the  insurance  company  controls  the  insurance  for  the  first 
mortgagee,  the  full  contribution  feature  may  be  omitted. 

MORTGAGEE  INTEREST— Except  in  special  cases,  the 
interest  of  the  mortgagee  is  not  insured  direct  or  separate,  but 
is  covered  by  the  usual  mortgage  clause. 

(MORTISE — A  hole  cut  in  one  piece  for  receiving  the 
tenon  which  projects  from  the  other  piece.  A  chisel  mor- 
tiser,  by  repeated  thrusts,  produces  the  desired  hole. 

MOTION  PICTURE  BOOTHS— Usually  built  of  asbestos 
lumber  ^-inch  thick  on  1^  by  1^  and  ^-inch  angle  iron 
frame.  Iron  booths  are  now  obsolete.  Where  the  equipment 
is  permanent,  tile  or  brick  is  used.  Shutters  should  close 
automatically.  Ventilation:  metal  pipe  should  extend  to  outer 
air  (not  to  attic).  Hand-operated  machines:  the  operator  is 
always  at  the  machine  and  therefore  can  readily  detect  any 
mechanism  which  might  go  wrong.  If  the  machine  is  elec- 
trically driven,  it  may  run  wild,  the  film  become  clogged,  and 
before  the  operator  could  shut  down  the  machine  many  feet 
of  film  may  be  burned.  Machines  should  be  fastened  to  floor 
to  prevent  tipping  them  over.  Automatic  shutters  on  ma- 
chines are  to  shut  off  rays  from  the  arc  lamp  when  machine 
stops  and  thus  prevent  ignition  of  the  film.  The  upper  mag- 
azine in  the  machine  holds  the  film  being  shown  which  is 
i  run  through  a  thin  slot  to  a  lower  magazine  where  it  is 
wound  up.  These  slot  openings  are  just  large  enough  to  ac- 
commodate the  film.  Arc  lights  at  machines  should  be  en- 
closed in  metal  box  lined  with  asbestos.  Careless  operators 
are  responsible  for  most  of  the  fires  in  picture  booths.  Ex- 
tinguishers and  sand  pails  are  required  in  booths. 

MOTION  PICTURE  FILMS  are  made  of  nitro-cellulose. 


308  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Non-inflammable  films  are  made  of  cellulose  acetate.  Those 
of  the  pyroxilin  type  when  stored  in  poorly  ventilated  vault 
are  apt  to  decompose  and  the  gas  arising,  when  mixed  with 
air  will  explode  if  ignited.  The  master  film  (original  nega- 
tive) is  very  valuable,  especially  before  copies  are  made. 
Sometimes  one  film  will  exceed  in  value  the  entire  contents 
of  the  studio.  The  values  run  up  to  half  a  million  dollars  for 
a  single  film.     See  Film  Vault. 

MOTION  PICTURE  SHOW  HOUSES— Note  if  building 
is  specially  designed  for  this  purpose  or  a  converted  building, 
the  construction  and  cleanliness  of  booth,  heating  apparatus, 
lighting  system,  care  of  scrap  films  which  are  produced  when 
reels  are  re-joined  after  breaking,  location  of  re-winding 
room  for  films.  The  ordinary  picture  show  building  is  a 
high  one-story  building  and  may  embrace  the  theatre  hazard 
by  having  a  wooden  stage  for  vaudeville  performances,  wood- 
en dressing  rooms  and  a  quantity  of  scenery. 

MOTION  PICTURE  STUDIO— Usually  consists  of  a 
group  of  buildings  varying  in  size  and  construction  and  com- 
municating with  each  other.  In  some,  the  different  depart- 
ments are  in  separate  buildings  or  sections;  while  in  others, 
the  dressing  rooms,  scenery  storage  and  painting,  carpenter 
shop,  studio  and  carpenter  shop  may  be  under  one  roof.  The 
stage  and  its  equipment  is  usually  of  a  portable  or  knock- 
down type.  At  least  one  side  and  the  roof  of  studio  is  glass. 
Neither  wired  glass  nor  glass  with  screens  can  be  used  for 
studio  lights  because  the  wires  would  show  on  the  picture  if 
taken  by  natural  light. 

Process:  Films  received  in  metal  cans,  washed  in  benzine, 
sensitized  in  glycerine  bath.  The  picture  is  taken  and  de- 
veloped in  bath  of  hyposulphate  of  soda  and  hydroquinon, 
glycerine  and  water  and  a  thin  solution  of  water  and  mer- 
cury, then  air  dried.  Printing  is  done  in  a  high  speed  all 
metal,  electric  power  printer.  An  incandescent  light  is  in  an 
enclosed  cylinder  in  center  of  printing  machine  with  a  small 
aperature  to  transmit  light.  The  negative  and  positive  films 
are  on  open  reels  and  pass  through  a  thin  slot  about  five 
inches  from  the  light  and  wound  on  reels  underneath  the 
printer.    The  film  is  then  perforated,  i.  e.,  a  row  of  small  holes 


MOTION    PICTURE    STUDIO  ZQ9 

is  made  down  each  side  of  the  film  which  fit  the  cogs  on  a 
reel  on  which  the  film  is  wound.  Perforators  are  high  speed, 
electric  power  machines,  equipped  with  a  suction  pipe  to 
carry  off  the  dust  created.  The  small  particles  are  dropped 
through  bottom  of  machine  to  a  metal  can.  The  joining  of 
sections  of  film  is  done  by  hand,  each  worker  having  a  small 
bottle  of  cement.  The  films  are  then  polished  on  reels  on 
which  are  fastened  flaps  of  felt  saturated  with  alcohol  and 
operated  by  hand.  They  are  then  projected  through  a  mov- 
ing-picture machine  to  detect  imperfections.  (A  moving-pic- 
ture machine  is  sometimes  called  a  projecting  machine.) 
Laboratory  work  consists  of  making  a  special  cement  for  join- 
ing films  composed  of  carbonate  of  potassium,  collodion,  amyl 
acetate,  acetone,  iodide  potassium,  sulphuric  acid,  ethyl 
acetone  and  sulphuret  potassium.  Joining,  printing,  develop- 
ing, perforating,  polishing,  cleaning,  property  rooms,  car- 
penter shop,  painting,  laboratory  and  projecting  should  be  in 
separate  rooms.  Rubber-covered  floors  are  used  a  great  deal 
to  prevent  nails  in  heels  of  shoes  producing  sparks  and  set- 
ting fire  to  film  scrap  on  floor.  Care  in  disposal  of  film 
scrap  is  very  important.  Film  vaults  should  conform  with 
underwriters'  requirements. 

National  Association  of  the  Motion  Picture  Industry,  Inc., 
says: 

1.  Keep  plenty  of  water  handy,  (a)  In  an  automatic  sprin- 
kler system  suitable  to  your  conditions;  (b)  In  convenient 
buckets;  (c)  In  faucets  with  an  inch  and  a  quarter  hose  and 
nozzle  attached;  (d)  Have  fire  extinguishers,  which  every- 
body is  shown  how  to  use;  (e)  Keep  sand  pails  handy.  Sand 
will  stop  a  small  film  fire  quickly  and  will  not  damage  the 
stock. 

2.  Keep  film  in  containers  when  not  actually  in  use.  The 
time  lost  in  replacing  it  is  nothing.  Naked  film  is  the  one 
condition  that  guarantees  that  a  little  fire  will  get  beyond 
control  in  a  few  seconds. 

3..   Throw  film  scraps  into  self-closing  metal  cans,  never 
into  open  waste  baskets. 
4.     Keep   the   cutting   rooms,   etc.,   well   swept.     The   tiny 


310  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

pieces  of  film  that  fly  about  make  the  dust  as  dangerous  as  so 
much  gunpowder. 

5.  Have  a  professional  electrician  do  all  your  wiring,  in 
accordance  with  every  city  ordinance,  no  matter  how  "un- 
reasonable" it  seems.    Have  the  light  globes  caged — a  broken 

i  globe  may  make  only  one  spark,  but  that  can  ignite  $1,000 
worth  of  film.  Handle  no  film  by  any  artificial  light  but 
electricity. 

6.  Box  your  radiators  and  steam  pipes.  The  film  that 
touches  a  hot  pipe  and  crinkles  up  might  just  as  easily  have 
burst  into  flame. 

7.  Enforce  the  "no  smoking"  rule.  Give  the  boys  a  smok- 
ing room  if  they  need  it,  and  make  the  boss  and  his  guests 
who  are  looking  over  the  place  leave  their  cigars,  cigarettes 
and  pipes  outside,  as  they  would  if  they  stepped  into  a  theater 
for  a  glimpse  of  the  picture. 

8.  Banish  the  "strike  anywhere"  match.  Furnish  boxes  of 
safety  matches  free,  if  necessary.  But  don't  have  anything 
that  will  light  except  when  it  is  intended  to. 

9.  Keep  only  enough  cement,  gasoline  and  collodion  on 
hand  for  the  day's  work.  They  are  all  highly  inflammable, 
and  should  be  stored  where  they  can  do  no  harm. 

10.  Appoint  one  man  or  woman  as  fire  monitor,  and  let 
him  know  it  is  all  his  job  is  worth  to  fail  to  call  down  the 
boss,  the  cutter,  or  the  office  boy  for  any  carelessness. 

Bad  housekeeping  and  carelessness:  Unguarded  radiators. 
Unprotected  electric  light  globe  over  film.  Electric  wires 
wrapped  around  steam  pipe.  Film  scrap  on  floor.  Lengths 
of  film  on  floor.  Willow  waste  basket  used.  Film  on  fire 
extinguisher.  Too  much  film  on  each  table.  Film  not  kept 
in  cans.  Smoking.  Waste  paper  and  newspapers  on  floor. 
Posters  in  same  room  with  film.  Lack  of  order  and  cleanli- 
ness. 

Motion  picture  studio  fire,  226-32  West  Thirty-fifth  Street, 
New  York  City,  Jan.  3,  1917.  The  tables  on  which  the  films 
were  joined  or  examined,  had  an  electric  light  in  them,  lo- 
cated in  a  well  and  covered  with  a  heavy  piece  of  glass. 
The  glass  cover  in  one  of  the  tables  was  very  loose  fitting, 
in  fact,  it  was  not  the  original  glass  made  for  the  opening. 


MOTOR   CYCLE   AND    BICYCLE   REPAIRS  311 

While  an  employee  was  joining  a  reel  on  this  table,  the 
electric  light  globe  broke.  It  is  thought  the  heavy  glass 
cover  fell  on  the  globe,  and  as  a  result  the  film  on  the  table 
caught  fire.  Some  of  the  employees  tried  to  put  the  fire 
out  by  throwing  the  film  on  the  floor  and  stamping  on  it, 
but  were  not  successful.  The  flames  ignited  other  films  in 
the  vicinity,  some  of  which  were  not  in  cases.  There  were 
about  59  reels,  part  in  cans,  a  few  of  which  were  in  a  single 
wall  metal  cabinet  at  the  time  of  the  fire.  The  fire  spread 
over  the  entire  rear  mezzanine  on  the  second  floor,  roof  and 
main  part  of  the  studio  and  filled  the  premises  with  an  irri- 
tating dense  smoke.  Some  of  the  employees  had  difficulty 
in  getting  to  the  street,  due  to  the  smoke.  The  importance 
of  segregating  motion  picture  studios  and  factories  and  the 
necessity  for  automatic  sprinklers  in  connection  therewith 
was  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  the  contents  of  this  film  de- 
partment furnished  exceptionally  inflammable  fuel  to  the  fire. 
This  fire  would  seem  to  justify  the  regulations  of  the  fire 
department  requiring  a  special  permit  and  rigid  safeguards* 
for  the  storage  of  inflammable  films  in  excess  of  five  reels 
(5,000  feet)  the  practice  of  having  electric  lights  on  the  film 
tables,  should  be  discouraged  as  much  as  possible.  The 
danger  may  be  somewhat  reduced  by  making  the  heavy  glass 
over  the  top  of  the  light  well  permanent;  also  the  bottom  of 
the  well  should  be  removed  so  no  pieces  of  film  can  lodge 
around  the  electric  light  globe. — (New  York  Board  Report.) 

MOTOR  CYCLE  AND  BICYCLE  REPAIR  SHOPS— 
Usually  located  in  basements  or  on  grade  floors,  with  apart- 
ments above.  Machine  shop  hazards,  with  oily  floors.  Some- 
times do  painting,  enameling,  vulcanizing,  cleaning  with  gaso- 
line and  have  a  large  stock  of  acetylene  gas  cylinders  for 
sale,  a  stock  of  automobile  accessories,  including  celluloid 
articles,  and  a  gasoline  supply  station.  These  places  are 
sometimes  used  as  "hang-outs."  See  Bicycle  and  Motor 
Cycle. 

MOTOR  GENERATOR— A  combination  of  motor  and 
dynamo.  The  shafts  of  each  are  coupled  together,  so  that 
when  the  motor  shaft  rotates  it  will  turn  the  dynamo  shaft. 

MOTORS  should  be  enclosed  to  prevent  foreign  matter 


312:  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING      : 

coming  in  contact  with  same.  The  boxes  should  be  lined 
with  zinc  or  asbestos  and  kept  clean.  Oil  pans  under  same 
will  prevent  oil  from  saturating  floor. 

MOVING  BUILDINGS— Buildings  that  have  been  moved 
should  always  be  inspected  to  ascertain  if  the  walls  have  been 
weakened  or  if  the  chimneys  have  been  crackad.  ,.,.; 

MUFFLER — A  type  of  gas  stove  with  a  hooded  top  to  re- 
tain the  heat.     Used  to  heat  soldering  or  pressing  irons. 

MULE — A  long  iron  frame  spinner  used  in  silk  mills. 

MULLIONS — Upright  bars  dividing  a  window  into  two  or 
more  lights. 

MUNGO — Obtained  by  "devilling"  the  rags  or  remnants  of 
fine   woolen   goods. 

MUNITIONS  are  not  necessarily  the  same  as  ammuni- 
tion. Usually  denotes  war  material  with  the  exception  of  ex- 
plosives. 

MUNITIONS  PLANT  FIRES— The  growth  of  the 
munitions  business  has  resulted  in  greater  precautions 
for  safety  being  taken  in  many  factories  that  were 
not  operated  with  success  prior  to  the  war.  They  have 
since  become  successful,  thus  minimizing  the  moral  hazard. 
Overtime  also  has  a  tendency  to  minimize  the  risk,  inasmuch 
as  when  work  people  are  on  the  premises  all  the  time  any 
incipient  fire  is  more  likely  to  be  arrested  before  actual  dam- 
age is  done.  The  following  are  features  of  the  report:  pro- 
longed hours  of  labor,  night  work,  etc.,  have  increased  the 
period  of  action  of  the  active  special  or  manufacturing  haz- 
ards. A  tendency  toward  uncleanliness  has  been  created  or 
enhanced  by  long  hours  of  labor,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
satisfactory  help,  the  increased  congestion  of  equipment  and 
material,  and,  above  all,  by  the  failure  of  superintendents, 
through  pressure  of  other  business,  to  give  attention  to  mat- 
ters of  housekeeping.  The  introduction  into  established  risks 
of  new  manufacturing  or  special  hazards  or  processes.  In 
some  cases  there  has  been  failure  to  protect  these  in  a  satis^ 
factory  and  permanent  manner  on  the  assumption  that  they 
were  of  a  temporary  character.  In  other  cases  there  has  been 
failure  to  realize  the  true  nature  of  the  hazard  involved  and 
ignorance  of  protective  measures. — (Weekly  Underwriter.) 


MUTUAL  INSURANCE  313 

MUNTINS— See   Mullions. 

MURIATE  OF  AMMONIA— See  Sal-ammoniac. 

MURIATIC  ACID— See   Hydrochloric  Acid. 

MURIATIC  ACID  VAPORS  will  extinguish  fires. 

MUSHROOMING — A  term  v^sed  to  express  the  action  of 
fire  which  travels  up  a  shaft  in  a  building  and  spreads  out 
on  the  upper  floor.  Usually  a  mushroom  fire  destroys  the 
roof. 

MUSIC  STOCKS— Sheet  music  stock  is  very  susceptible 
to  water  damage.  Great  percentage  of  the  stock  is  usually 
obsolete  or  out-of-date  stuff. 

MUSICAL  INSTRUMENT  FACTORIES  include  wood 
and  metal  working  and  varnishing  hazard.  (Poor  fire  record.) 

MUSTARD  FOR  TABLE  USE  is  ground  wet  in  burr 
mills,  mixed  with  spices  and  vinegar  and  bottled.  The  hazard 
is  mild.      (Always  inspect  this  class.) 

MUSTARD  OIL  is  pressed  from  seeds  by  hydraulic  press 
after  crushing  and  grinding,  then  filtered.  All  machinery  and 
woodwork  becomes  very  oily.  The  grinding  of  mustard  seed 
is  not  so  hazardous  as  the  grinding  of  mustard  after  all  oil 
has  been  extracted.     (Write  class  with  caution.) 

MUTUAL  INSURANCE— This  differs  from  stock  insur* 
ance  by  charging  a  set  premium  for  each  class  at  the  incep- 
tion of  the  insurance.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  part  of  the 
profits  of  the  company  are  returned  to  the  policy-holders  of 
each  class  of  insurance  which  has  shown  a  profit. 


do    to 


N 

NAILS  OR  SCREWS  packed  in  kegs  suffer  severe  water 
damage.  In  order  to  get  a  fair  amount  of  salvage,  they  must 
be  thoroughly  dried  at  once  to  prevent  rust.  Galvanized 
ware  gives  greater  salvage. 

NAKED  LIGHTS— See  Inflammable  Vapors. 

NAMES — Business  in  Woman's  Name — A  business  may  be 
in  a  woman's  name  for  any  of  the  following  reasons:  She 
may  be  a  widow  or  unmarried,  divorced  or  a  "grass  widow"; 
her  husband  may  have  broken  a  lease  and  to  avoid  suit  trans- 
ferred the  business  to  her;  a  judgment  may  have  been  entered 
against  her  husband  and  to  avoid  payment,  transferred  thfe 
business  to  her;  failures  of  husband;  husband  may  have  a 
bad  fire  record,  or,  owing  to  manner  of  conducting  business, 
credit  is  denied  him  by  the  trade.  Instances  are  known 
where  the  husband  has  sold  a  business  with  the  proviso  that 
he  would  not  engage  in  the  same  business  as  a  competitor 
to  the  new  owner,  but  has  started  up  a  business  as  a  com^ 
petitor  in  his  wife's  name.  The  wife  or  other  female  relative 
may  have  furnished  the  capital  or  owned  the  business  before 
marriage;  it  may  be  a  woman's  trade,  such  as  corsets  or  in- 
fants' wear,  the  wife  conducting  the  business  and  the  husband 
being  employed  elsewhere.  See  Moral  Hazard;  also  For- 
eigners. 

NAPKINS — This  stock  is  little  affected  by  water  damage. 

NAPPERS — Machines  designed  to  brush  or  pick  up  the 
surface  of  knitted  cloth,  producing  long  nap  or  fleece  effect. 
See  Knitting  Mills. 

NAPHTHA,  GASOLINE,  BENZINE  or  other  fluids 
which  emit  inflammable  vapors  below  100  deg.  F.  should  be 
stored  outside  of  buildings  in  steel  tanks,  buried  at  least  two 
feet  below  ground,  or  otherwise  isolated.  In  printing  estab- 
lishments permission  is  given  by  local  boards  of  underwriters 

3H 


NATIONAL   FIRE    PROTECTION   ASSOCIATION  31S 

to  store  these  materials  above  ground  outside  of  building  in 
an  approved  safety  can  not  exceeding  five  gallons'  capacity 
if  in  a  box,  on  a  permanent  shelf,  securely  fastened  to  the 
wall,  but  not  directly  in  front  of  a  window;  the  shelf  to  be 
of  metal,  provided  with  guard  rail,  so  that  the  can  cannot 
be  readily  dislodged  by  accident.  The  law  prohibits  using 
fire-escapes  for  storage  of  such  inflammables.  Should  be 
used  in  the  building  from  approved  safety  can  and  kept  out- 
side on  a  shelf  on  nights,  holidays  and  Sundays.  A  box  of 
sheet  iron,  under  lock  and  key,  or  other  incombustible  ma- 
terial, is  recommended  as  a  protection  from  the  weather.  The 
box  will  fulfill  the  requirement  for  a  guard  rail.  See  Petro- 
leum; also  Inflammable  Liquids;  see  Inflammable  Vapors. 

NAPHTHA  CEMENT— See  Rubber  Cement. 

NAPHTHALENE— Coal  tar  camphor;  white  crystalline 
solid.    Usually  kept  in  wooden  barrels.    Not  hazardous. 

NAPHTHALIC  (or  phithalic  acid)— A  crystalline  acid  ob- 
tained from  napthalene.     Inflammable. 

NAPHTHA  SOAP  is  said  to  contain  a  small  amount  of 
naphtha. 

NAPHTHA  WOOD— See  Alcohol. 

NARROW  STREETS— Buildings  on  narrow  streets 
should  be  written  with  caution.  The  fire  department  is  oft- 
en handicapped  in  fighting  the  fire  for  lack  of  room'  for 
their  apparatus  and  cannot  perform  their  best  work. 

NATIONAL  FIRE  PROTECTION  ASSOCIATION—^ 
The  purpose  of  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association  is 
*'to  promote  the  science  and  improve  the  methods  of  fire 
protection  and  prevention;  to  obtain  and  circulate  informa- 
tion on  these  subjects  and  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  its 
members  in  establishing  proper  safeguards  against  loss  of 
life  and  property  by  fire."  It  is  supported  by  members'  sub- 
scriptions. There  are  two  classes  of  members,  active  and 
associate.  j 

NATRONA — A  form  of  petroleum. 

NAVAL  STORES— Turpentine,  pitch,,  rosin  and  tar. 
Usually  stored  in  large  area  frame  sheds  or  in  yards  along 
water  fronts.  Painting  barrel  heads  is  sometimes  done  on 
premises.     Burn  fiercely. 


316  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

NAVE — The  main  body  of  a  building  having  connecting 
wings  or  aisles  on  either  side  of  it,  as  in  a  church. 

NEATSFOOT  OIL— Derived  from  the  feet  of  various  ani- 
mals. Used  for  leather  dressing.  Rags  saturated  with  this 
oil  should  be  kept  in  self-closing  waste  cans. 

NECKWEAR  (especially  ladies*)  is  very  susceptible  to 
damage  from  smoke,  fire  and  water.  This  stock  might  in- 
clude the  finest  grade  of  chiffon  and  malines.  See  Silk  Neck- 
wear. 

NEEDLES — Made  from  steel  wire,  cut  into  lengths,  heat- 
ed in  furnace  and  rolled.  Points  are  made  on  grindstone  by 
hand.  An  automatic  machine  cuts  out  the  gutters  and  flat- 
tens the  heads.  Eyes  are  punched  in,  and  the  needles  tem- 
pered in  a  furnace.  To  polish,  they  are  spread  on  a  cloth, 
sprinkled  with  emery  dust,  oil  and  soft  soap,  and  rolled  in 
the  cloth  (called  "friction"  bath)  rinsed  in  water,  sorted  and 
packed.     Stock  subject  to  severe  water  damage. 

NESTY — A  term  used  by  insurance  men  to  describe  con- 
gested areas  of  frame  buildings. — Gene  Eagles. 

NET  SURPLUS  of  a  company.  After  all  liabilities  have 
been  met  (including  unearned  premium  reserve  and  paid  up 
capital)  that  which  remains  is  net  surplus.  It  is  an  asset 
set  aside  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  obligations  due 
to  large  conflagrations. 

NETTLES — Fibres  grown  on  plantations  are   now  being 
.  used  as  fabric  substitutes  for  cotton. 

NEUTRALIZE^ — If  an  acid  is  deprived  of  its  acid  prop- 
erties by  means  of  an  oxide  (base)  or  vice  versa  it  is  said 
to  be  neutralized. 

NEUTRAL  SALTS,  i.  e.,  Glaubers,  Epsoms,  etc.,  are  so 
called  because  the  acid  properties  of  the  sulphuric  acid  are 
wholly  neutralized  in  them.  Neutral  Spirits,  see  Grain  Al- 
cohol. 

,  NEWMAN  SYSTEM  of  time  recording  for  watchmen. 
The  Newman  System  equips  the  watchman  with  a  portable 
watch-clock  which  must  be  carried  in  rotation  on  ever> 
hourly  inspection  round  to  patrol  stations  located  at  the  im- 
portant inspection  points,  and  each  having  a  key,  which  when 
inserted  and  turned  in  the  clock,   registers  on  a  paper  dial 


NITRATES      Oiraaqf:  317 

therein  the  distinctive  mark  of  that  station  and  the  exact 
time  at  which  the  station  was  visited.  The  keys  are  fastened 
and  sealed  at  the  various  stations.  The  clock  is  locked  while 
in  possession  of  the  watchman. 

NEW  VENTURES  are  usually  tabooed  by  underwriters 
unless   capital  is  in  evidence  to  promote  the  business. 

NEWSPAPER  PLANTS— Printing  hazards.  Employ  day 
and  night  shifts  and  some  employees  generally  about  the 
plant  at  all  times.  The  last  class  to  want  a  fire  because  the 
success  of  a  newspaper  lies  in  keeping  editions  going.  Con- 
sidered good  moral  fire  risks. 

NICOTYLIA— An   oily  inflammable  liquid. 

NIGGERHEAD— A  small  black  box  enclosing  the  alarm 
mechanism  on  a  water  flow  alarm  attached  to  a  sprinkler 
system. 

NO.  99 — Special  cleaning  fluid,  classed  as  kerosene. 

NITRANILINE — Powder  used  by  dyers,  cannot  be  ig- 
nited. A  subjection  to  moisture  causes  it  to  decompose  in 
which  action  it  throws  off  heavy  fumes  and  generates  heat. 

NITRATES— Nitrate  of  barium.     See  Barium   Nitrate. 

Nitrate  of  Copper  Crystals — If  bruised  or  moistened  will 
smoke  and  may  explode. 

Nitrate  of  Lead — See  Lead  Nitrate. 

Nitrate  of  Strontia — See  Strontium. 

Nitrate  of  Potassium — See  Potassium  Nitrate. 

Nitrate  of  Potash — Formed  by  the  union  of  nitric  acid 
and  potash  (commonly  called  nitre  or  saltpetre)  is  one  of 
the  ingredients  of  gunpowder. 

Nitrate  of  Soda^— See  Soda  Nitrate. 

Ferric  Nitrate  is  used  by  dyers. 

Silver  Nitrate — Used  in  photo-indelible  inks  and  mirrors. 

NITRATING  is  usually  a  hazardous  process. 

NITRATING  ACID— See   Mixed  Acid. 

NITRE — See  Potassium  Nitrate.  As  soon  as  emptied  nitre 
bags  should  be  thoroughly  washed  and  dried  in  the  open. 
Empty  bags  are  very  inflammable. 

NITRIC  ACID — Composed  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  ob- 
tained by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  nitrate  of  potash. 
See  Acids. 


SX»  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Extracts  From  a  Paper  Before  the  Cincinnati  Convention  of 
the  International  Association  of  Fire  Engineers  by  Chief 
M  Thomas  A.  Clancy  of  Milwaukee,  First  Vice-President  of 
the  Association: 

If  concentrated  nitric  acid  be  poured  upon  powdered  char- 
coal  it   will   take   fire  under   ordinary  temperatures. 

Paper,  cotton,  sugar,  starch,  and  certain  other  organic 
substances  treated  with  concentrated  nitric  acid,  become  thor- 
oughly changed,  and  though  in  their  outer  form  they  re- 
main the  same,  they  become  violently  explosive. 

Warm  nitric  acid  run  into  badly  annealed  carboys  will 
crack  them,  and  set  fire  to  the  straw  or  other  packing,  or 
combustible  material  surrounding  them.  If  this  powerful 
oxidizing  acid  reaches  pine  wood,  especially  pine  knots,  a 
fire   will   result  with   frightful   rapidity. 

Nitric  acid,  while  contained  in  the  carboy,  is  safe  enough, 
but  should  it  leak  into  organic  matter,  the  mixture  becomes 
spontaneously  inflammable. 

Like  many  other  chemical  substances  it  is  readily  affected 
by  light,  and  many  substances  formed  by  its  action  are  de- 
composed by  exposure  to  sunlight. 

Uses  of  Nitric  Acid — Nitric  acid  is  used  in  a  very  large 
number  of  industrial  operations,  viz.:  in  dyeing,  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  lacquers;  in  the  manufacture  of  picric  acid,  nitro- 
benzol,  etc.;  in  the  manufacture  of  many  coal-tar  colors; 
in  many  explosives,  as  gun-cotton,  fulminate  of  mercury, 
nitroglycerin,  etc. 

The  nitrates,  as  the  compounds  derived  from  nitric  acid 
by  the  replacement  of  its  hydrogen  by  a 'metal  are  called, 
are,  like  the  acid  itself,  powerful  oxidizing  agents.  They 
therefore  require  considerable  care  in  handling,  not  because 
they  have  any  tendency  to  burn  in  air,  but  because  of  their 
liability,  when  mixed  with  oxidizable  matter,  to  produce  its 
oxidation  and  consequent  ignition  and  inflammation.  Slight 
friction  of  a  nitrate  against  any  dry  inflammable  matter,  such 
as  wood,  may  be  sufficient  to  start  a  fire.  If  the  nitrate  and 
inflammable  substance  be  intimately  mixed  there  results  a 
violently  explosive  combination.  Gunpowder  is  such  a  mix- 
ture. 


V  :*  '     ;  NITRIC    ACID  319 

Nitrates  which  are  specially  important  on  account  of  their 
common  occurrence  are: 

Sodjium  Nitrate — Largely  used  as  a  manure  and  in  the  prep- 
aration of  nitric  acid,  sometimes  in  the  manufacture  of  min* 
ing  powder. 

Potassium  Nitrate,  "Saltpetre"  or  "Nitre"— Used  for  pre- 
serving certain  articles  of  food;  in  the  manufacture  of 
matches  and  of  gunpowder. 

Lead  Nitrate — Used  in  the  preparation  of  pigments. 

Ammonia  Nitrate — Used  in  the  preparation  of  nitrous  ox- 
ide, the  "gas"  of  the  dentists,  and  in  certain  explosives. 

The  so-called  "Nitrate  of  Iron"  of  the  dyer,  prepared  by 
oxidizing  "copperas"  (ferrous  sulphate)  with  nitric  acid,  con- 
sists mainly  of  ferric  sulphate. 

"Aqua  Fortis"  or  "strong  water"  (because  of  its  great  sol- 
vent power)  is  the  name  given  nitric  acid  by  Gerber  (A.  D. 
750-800),  or  one  of  his  immediate  predecessors,  who  made  it 
by  heating  together  saltpetre,  copper,  vitriol  and  alum.  The 
first  mention  of  the  present  process  of  making  it  is  by  Basil 
Valentine  (A.  D.  1450-1500)  who  says,  however,  that  this 
method  has  long  been  used.  Nitric  acid  was,  therefore.  One 
of  the  earliest  mineral  acids  known. 

Industrial  Importance — Nitric  acid  occupies  a  peculiar  po- 
sition, somewhat  like  that  of  sulphuric,  of  great  industrial 
importance  as  an  intermediate  step  in  the  production  of  other 
products.  Its  salts  are  used  to  some  extent  in  electroplating, 
since  practically  every  one  is  soluble;  in  fireworks  and  col- 
ored lights,  because  of  their  high  oxidizing  power,  and  it  is 
essential  to  the  manufacture  of  many  organic  compounds* 
besides  nitrocelluloses,  azo  and  diazo  dyes.  In  tonnage  and 
value,  it  stands  among  the  leading  chemical  products.  In 
the  form  of  nitrates  or  substitution  products  it  is  essential 
in  some  way  to  the  production  of  practically  every  explosive, 
while  its  salts  (chiefly  from  natural  deposits),  are  used  for 
fertilizer  in  this  country  to  a  great  extent.  ■  ,,h  ;l<ri.' j 

Storage— Nitric  acid  should,  if  possible,. be  stored ^butsfde 
of  manufacturing  buildings  or  plants.  If  this  cannot  be  done, 
then  in  vaults  located  in  the  basements  of  buildings.  Some 
dealers  in  this  article  have  separate  compartments  so  that,  in 


«3t  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

case  of  breakage,  the  contents  may  not  run  over  the  floor 
or  mix  with  other  acids  and  form  explosive  compounds  of 
poisonous  gases.  Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  have 
more  than  what  is  actually  required  on  any  floor  of  the 
building  and  the  acid  not  used  should  be  returned  to  the 
carboy  and  vaults  at  the  end  of  each  working  day.  Due 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  jar  the  necks  of  the  carboys 
in  opening  them.  A  small,  cheap  saw  will  readily  saw 
through  the  plaster  of  Paris  around  the  stopper,  allowing  it 
to  come  out  easily.  Heat  of  any  kind  will  cause  the  acid 
in  the  carboy  to  expand  and,  overflowing,  will  generate  heat 
when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  straw  packing  of  the  carboy. 

NITRITE— A  salt  of  nitrous  acid.     See  Sodium  Nitrite. 

NITROBENZINE— Benzine  treated  with  fuming  nitric 
acid,  resulting  in  a  heavy,  yellow,  oily  substance.  Also  known 
as  oil  of  mirbane. 

NITROBENZOL— See  Mirbane  Oil,  also  Trinitro  Benzol. 

NITROCELLULOSE— Formed  by  the  nitration  of  cotton 
by  treatment  with  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids. 
Highly  inflammable  and  explosive. 

NITROCELLULOSE  FILMS— The  storage,  preparation 
and  manufacture  is  very  hazardous  and  they  should  not  be 
stored  in  large  quantities  where  subject  to  one  fire. 

NITROGEN — A  gas,  which  with  argon,  constitutes  four- 
fifths  by  volume  of  the  atmosphere,  and  constitutes  the  basis 
of  nitric  acid. 

NITROGLYCERINE— Obtained  by  nitrating  glycerine 
with  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  A  heavy  oily 
liquid  of  yellowish  color  resembling  glycerine  in  appearance. 
Highly  explosive  and  dangerous.  It  freezes  at  about  40  deg. 
F.  Very  insensitive  to  shock  when  frozen  and  for  this  reason 
has  been  shipped  packed  in  ice. 

NITROGLYCERINE  SPIRITS— A  solution  of  nitro- 
glycerine of  not  more  than  10  per  cent,  strength  in  grain  al- 
cohol; same  inflammability  as  grain  alcohol. 

NITRO-HYDROCHLORIC  ACID— Mixture  of  nitric  and 
hydrochloric  acids;  gives  off  chlorine  gas. 

NITROLEUM — Another  name  for  nitroglycerine. 

NITROTOLUOL — There  are  various  compounds  shipped 


NOTICE  OF  LOSS  321 

as  nitrotoluol,  for  example,  dinitrotoluol,  mononitrotoluol  and 
trinitrotoluol — some  liquid  and  some  solid.  None  of  the 
liquids  are  explosive  or  dangerous.  Of  the  solids,  trinitrotol- 
uol is  the  only  one  classed  as  a  high  explosive. 

NITROUS  ACID — A  compound  of  four  volumes  of  nitro- 
gen and  one  of  oxygen. 

NITROUS  ETHER— See  Ethyl  Nitrite;  also  Ether. 

NON-BEARING  WALL— One  which  supports  no  other 
load  than  its  own  weight. 

NON-CONDUCTORS— Substances  that  do  not  conduct  or 
transmit  heat  or  electricity. 

NON-DRYING  OIL— Chief  one  is  olive  oil  from  olives. 

NON-INFLAMMABLE— The  term  "non-inflammable"  ap- 
plies to  materials  and  substances  which  will  ignite  but 
will  not  support  flame  when  subjected  to  ordinary  fire. 
•  Alternative  Definition — The  term  "non-inflammable"  ap- 
plies to  articles,  goods,  wares,  merchandise  or  materials  of 
construction  which  will  support  combustion,  but  will  not 
readily  burn. 

NON-STIPULATED  WAREHOUSE— See  Warehouses. 

NOT  WANTED— Policies  are  frequently  written,  de- 
livered to  the  assured,  then  returned  to  the  company  because 
the  insurance  is  not  wanted.  Should  not  be  marked  off  after 
it  has  been  in  force  for  any  length  of  time  because  an  earned 
premium  is  then  due. 

NOTICE  OF  LOSS— The  first  notice  sent  an  insurance 
company  when  a  loss  occurs,  stating  that  a  fire  has  occurred, 
the  date,  and  approximate  amount. 

NOTIONS — This  stock  generally  suffers  a  bad  damage 
from  fire.  The  stock  is  composed  of  many  different  articles, 
some  very  susceptible  to  water  and  others  to  smoke  or  the 
rusting  of  the  metal  parts  which  are  generally  on  small 
wares.     Celluloid  articles  may  form  part  of  this  stock. 

NOVELTY  JEWELRY  MANUFACTURING— See  Jew- 
elry. 

NUCOLINE — Trade  name  for  cocoanut  oil. 

NUISANCES — Glue  factories,  slaughter  houses,  soap  fac- 
tories,   etc.,    in    thickly    populated    sections    are    avoided    by 


322  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

many  underwriters.  They  may  lower  the  value  of  sur- 
rounding property.     May  burn  from  incendiarism. 

NUT  AND  BOLT  FACTORIES— Hazards  of  annealing, 
tempering,  machine  shops  with  heavy  and  light  machines, 
threaders.  Wood  floors  readily  become  oil-soaked.  Soda- 
and-water  cutting  fluid  used  in  place  of  oil  at  the  threaders 
reduces  the  oily  floor  hazard. 

NUT  GALLS — An  excrescence  formed  on  the  leaves  of 
certain  trees  by  female  insects.     They  contain  tannic  acid. 

NUTMEG  OIL,  if  mixed  with  iodine,  detonates  and  causes 
fire. 

NUTS — Filberts,  with  solid  shell,  considered  good  insur- 
ance. Walnuts  with  parted  shells  not  as  good  as  filberts. 
Shelled  nuts  yield  very  little,  if  any,  salvage,  if  wet,  scorched 
or  even  smoked. 


o 

OAKUM — Fibre  tarred  with  pine  tar  and  mineral  oil; 
should  be  kept  in  a  standard  vault.  Process:  Fibre  is  put 
through  an  oakum-carding  machine  and  then  run  between 
corrugated  rolls  on  which  a  solution  of  tar  is  kept  dripping. 
This  saturated  fibre  is  then  wound  up  and  pressed  into  bales 
ready  for  shipment.  The  process  is  hazardous.  The  tar  pot 
should  preferably  be  outside  of  main  building  and  heated  by 
indirect  heat  or  steam.  Surrounding  woodwork  burns  quickly 
when  saturated  with  the  drips  or  scattered  tar  solution. 

OAT  CRUSHERS— Used  in  stables  for  crushing  oats. 
Should  have  a  magnet  attached  to  keep  metallic  substances 
from  passing  through  the  rollers  and  creating  sparks  which 
might  ignite  the  dust.  If  oats  are  screened  before  crushing 
the  hazard  is  lessened. 

OATS — Fires  have  probably  been  caused  by  spontaneous 
combustion  due  to  the  fermentation  of  the  grain  stored  in 
damp  places. 

X'O,  G. — The  abbreviation  for  "on  centers,"  meaning  the  dis- 
tance from  center  to  center  of  timbers,  as  beams  "spaced  16 
inches  O.  C." 

"OCCUPANCY"— Means  the  use  to  which  a  building  is 
put  or  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  occupied.  The  contents  of 
a  building  determine  its  "occupancy."  The  "occupancy"  may 
be  a  carpenter  or  paint  shop,  a  garage,  school  house,  thea- 
tre or  grocery  store.  One  building  may  have  several  occu- 
pancies, as  stores  on  the  first  floor,  offices  on  the  second, 
and  lodging  rooms  above.  "Occupancy"  in  fire  insurance 
schedul-es  means  the  classification  of  the  business  of  the 
tenants  of  any  building.  (Fire  Facts,  issued  by  Washington 
Surveying  and  Rating  Bureau.)     See  Loft,  'also  Risk. 

OCHRES — Clays  tinted  with  oxide  of  iron  and  manganese 
and  small  per  cent,  df  water  and  sulphur.     Artificially  dried 

?23 


324  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

to  expel  water.  Yellow  ochre  due  to  oxide  of  iron;  brown, 
to  manganese  oxide.     They  are  ground  in  raw  linseed  oil. 

OFFICE  BUILDINGS  (fireproof)— The  main  features  are 
the  height,  protection  of  ironwork,  and  floor  openings.  Many- 
losses  have  occurred  from  old  records  and  files  kept  in  wood 
cabinets  or  lockers  in  rooms  where  boys  go  to  lounge  and 
smoke.     Recommend  all-metal  construction  for  lockers. 

OIL  AND  GREASE  fires  are  best  fought  with  ashes, 
earth,  sand  or  cloths  providing  they  are  in  well-ventilated 
places.  If  in  closed  places  the  introduction  of  steam  will  be 
found  most  desirable. 

OIL,  BOILING  POINTS— Illuminating  212  deg.  F.  to  450 
deg.  F.  Lubricating,  450  deg.  F.  to  800  deg.  F.  Paraffine 
oil,  600  deg.  F.  to  800  deg.  F.  Naphtha,  90  deg.  F.  to  212 
deg.  F.  Mixture  of  lubricating  and  paraffine  oils,  450  deg.  F. 
to  800  deg.  F.  The  lower  the  boiling  or  flash  point  the 
greater  the  danger  of  combustion  or  explosion. 

OIL  BURNING  EQUIPMENTS  (except  household)— 
Except  in  isolated  sections,  the  supply  tank  should  be  three 
feet  under  ground  or  three  feet  below  basement  floor  of 
building  and  lower  than  any  of  the  piping.  This  allows  the 
oil  to  return  by  gravity  to  the  tank.  The  capacity  of  tanks 
is  regulated  by  local  underwriters.  Tanks  (iron)  to  have  a 
firm  foundation,  the  soil  around  same  well  tamped  (po.unded 
down),  the  covering  to  be  dirt  with  6-inch  concrete  topping, 
tanks  coated  with  rust-resisting  paint.  Above-ground  tanks, 
oil  must  be  pumped  to  building  and  not  run  by  gravity  to 
supply  pipes,  otherwise,  in  event  of  fire,  a  broken  pipe  would 
allow  all  the  oil  to  drain  from  the  tank  and  be  a  source  of 
danger  to  surroundings.  Dikes  are  built  around  tanks  to 
prevent  the  oil  running  away  where  gravity  feed  is  used.  One- 
inch  vent  pipes  are  required  on  all  tanks  to  extend  12  inches 
above  any  tank  car  or  reservior.  Those  connected  to  tanks 
located  inside  of  buildings  should  extend  outside. of  build- 
ing, three  feet  from  any  building  and  one  foot  above  the 
roof,  with  screened  gooseneck.  See  Cooking  and  Heating 
Apparatus.     See  Fuel  Oil. 

OILCLOTH  FACTORY  FIRE— Chandler  Oilcloth  Co., 
Yardville,   N.   J.,    May  2,    1916.     The   cause   probably   being 


OILCLOTH    FACTORY    FIRE  325 

gasoline  vapor  in  the  drying  cells  and  coating  room.  The 
recommendations  follow:  (1)  Where  drying  is  accomplished 
by  direct  radiation  in  the  drying  cells,  a  system  of  ventilation 
by  means  of  air  exhaust  fan  in  a  separate  building,  taking 
suction  from  the  bottom  of  each  cell  and  discharging  to  the 
atmosphere  should  be  employed;  (2)  Drying  cells  should  be 
of  heavy  brick  walls  (side),  but  of  light  fire-resistive  roof; 
fire  doors  should  be  at  openings;  (3)  Coating  machines 
should  be  provided  with  steam  jets  and  floor  should  be 
sprinkled  to  keep  humid  condition  of  air;  (4)  Coating  ma- 
chine knife  rolls,  etc.,  should  be  grounded  together  with 
shafting  and  machines;  (5)  Electric  light  wiring  in  coating 
room  should  be  standard  in  conduit  with  vapor-proof 
globes  with  wire  guards;  (6)  Automatic  sprinklers;  (7)  Quan- 
tity of  coating  mixture  and  gasoline  should  be  reduced  to 
minimum.— (A.  R.  Ramsdell,  N.  F.  P.  A.,  Vol.  10,  1916.) 

OIL-COOKING  AND  HEATING— See  Cooking  and 
Heating  Apparatus. 

OILED  CLOTHING— Clothing  which  has  been  water- 
^  proofed  with  linseed  oil.  When  packed  in  solid  piles  is  sub- 
ject to  spontaneous  combustion.  Should  be  hung  on  racks  so 
that  air  will  circulate  through  the  stock. 

OIL  FIELDS — Deep-well  drilling  particularly  is  very  haz- 
ardous because  the  boiler  generally  used  has  an  open  fire  box 
and  is  liable  to  start  a  grass  fire.  The  forge  is  usually  kept 
within  the  derrick,  and  is  safe  in  small  volume  wells  or  when 
the  wind  is  blowing  in  the  opposite  direction.  When  a  large 
gas  pocket  is  struck,  however,  and  the  forge  fire  is  not 
quickly  extinguished,  enormous  fires  usually  result. 

OIL  GAS — Produced  from  paraffine  oil.  It  is  heavier  than 
coal  gas  and  heavier  than  air,  rolls  along  the  ground  like  a 
cloud  and  can  be  readily  observed.  It  has  been  known  to 
travel  300  to  400  feet  to  an  open  fire,  flash  back  and  explode 
the  gasometer.  When  ignited  in  this  manner,  the  flame  is 
immense  and  lasts  longer  than  the  same  volume  of  coal  gas. 
Sec  Pintsch  Gas. 

OIL  HOUSES— See  Factory  Oil  Houses. 

OIL  IN  CANS — If  cans  are  coldered,  a  moderate  degree 


326  ,  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  heat  may  melt  the  solder,  allowing  the  oil  to  escape,  and 
thus  feed  the  fire. 

OIL  OF  MIRBANE— See  Mirbane  Oil. 

OILPROOF— See  Shoe  Factories. 

OIL  REFINERIES— Lightning  is  the  greatest  danger  to 
tanks.  Direct  heat  is  used,  and  leaky  valves  or  defective 
equipment  may  allow  inflammable  vapors  to  escape.  After 
condensing,  oil  is  graded  by  re-distilling.  Gasoline  and 
kerosene  are  purified  with  acid  in  large  tanks  agitated  by 
steam  or  air  under  pressure. 

OIL  SEPARATORS— Those  installed  in  a  garage  should 
be  connected  to  the  house  drain,  and  be  so  arranged  as  to 
separate  all  oils  from  the  drainage  of  the  garage.  See  Gar- 
ages. 

OIL  STORAGE— Risks  may  include  gasoline,  and  filling  of 
cars.  Fires  have  been  caused  by  back-firing  of  automobiles 
in  driveways  of  buildings.  Automobiles  should  be  kept  out- 
side of  buildings  and  barrels  or  cans  loaded  outside.  Tanks 
of  small  capacity  may  have  a  combined  fill  and  vent  pipe 
so  arranged  that  fill  pipe  cannot  be  used  without  opening 
vent.  Oil  is  conveyed  to  underground  storage  tank  by  * 
means  of  a  fill  pipe  with  inlet  on  street  or  yard.  The  inlet 
opening  should  be  capped  and  surrounded  by  an  iron  box 
with  cover  and  kept  locked  to  prevent  tampering. 

OIL  STOVES  when  on  fire  should  have  ashes  or  wet 
cloths  placed  around  them,  and,  if  possible,  under  the  same 
(without  moving  the  stove)  and  the  fire  then  smothered  with 
wet  cloths.  It  is  unwise  to  move  the  stove  as  the  oil  is 
likely  to  spill  and  spread  the  fire  or  explode. 

OIL  TANK  FIRES  are  mainly  caused  by  being  struck  by 
lightning.  The  tanks  should  have  a  permanent  electrical 
"ground"  so  that  in  case  they  are  struck  this  may  prevent 
the  ignition  of  the  contents.     See  Erwin  Extinguisher. 

OIL  TANKS— When  on  fire,  if  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
dry,  fine,  tough  foam  (glue  and  glucose  formula)  is  spread 
upon  the  burning  oil  surface,  this  foam,  being  lighter  than 
oil  and  made  of  minute  bubbles  confining  carbonic  acid 
gas,  will  probably  extinguish  the  fire. 

OIL  TESTING— In  testing  an  oil  for  its  flashing  temper- 


OIL   WAREHOUSES  327 

ature  the  most  rational  method  would  be  to  heat  the  oil  to 
a  given  temperature,  aspirate  it  well  with  air  and  apply  a 
flame  to  the  mixture,   noticing  if  an   explosion  occurs. 

OIL  OF  TURPENTINE— See  Turpentine. 

OIL  OF  VITRIOL— See  Sulphuric  Acid. 

OIL  WAREHOUSES— Lubricating  oil  burns  with  a  dense 
black  smoke.  Water  in  tremendous  quantities  is  necessary 
to  extinguish  a  fire  once  started  in  an  ordinary-sized  building. 
Barrels  burst  open,  oil  and  water  soak  through  walls  and 
damage   stocks   in   adjoining  buildings. 

OILY  FLOORS  under  all  kinds  of  machinery  should  be 
cleaned  with  a  solution  of  ammonia,  potash  and  lye.  Under 
all  heavy  machinery  such  as  pipe  cutters,  printing  presses, 
motors,  gas  engines,  a  metal  base  with  curbed  edges  should 
be  placed  to  catch  the  oil  and  prevent  it  from  spreading 
and  soaking  the  floor.  Sand  should  be  used  in  place  of  saw- 
dust  for   catching   drips. 

OILY  WASTE  RECLAIMING— Use  steam-heated  cen- 
trifugal machines,  similar  to  laundry  extractors,  for  extract- 
ing the  oil.  Fires  have  occurred  in  heaps  of  oily  waste 
awaiting  reclaiming.     A  class  avoided  by  most  companies. 

OINTMENTS — Ingredients  include  lanium,  parafline,  pe- 
trolatum, cocoa  butter  and  wax.  Hazards  of  heating  by 
direct  heat,  and  oily  floors. 

OLD   METALS— See   Refiners. 

OLD  RECORDS  and  Files— See  Office  Buildings. 

OLD    RUBBER   and   Metals— See   Junk    Shops. 

OLEOMARGARINE— Made  of  beef  suet  and  cottonseed 
oil. 

OLEO-STEARINE— A  packing-house  product  derived 
from  beef  fats. 

OLEUM  or  N.  O.  V.  (Nordhousen  Oil  of  Vitriol)— The 
commercial  term  of  fuming  sulphuric  acid  containing  anhy- 
dride. 

OLIBANUM — A   fragrant   gum   resin,   readily   ignited. 

OLIVE  OIL — Used  in  cooking  food,  soap-making,  etc. 
On  the  premises  of  bottlers  sawdust  is  used  to  catch  the 
drips  from  barrels.    Fires  from  spontaneous  combustion  have 


328  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

been  thus  caused.  Sulphured  Olive  Oil  is  obtained  by  the 
extraction  of  olive  oil  by  means  of  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

OLIVOLINE — A  non-gumming  oil  for  lubricating. 

OMNIBUS  RISKS— Those  housing  a  number  of  tenants 
with  different  manufacturing  hazards.  Companies  usually 
write  cautiously. 

ONE-FIRE  RISK— A  risk,  either  a  single  building  or 
group  of  buildings  mutually  exposing  each  other  and  sub- 
ject to  destruction  by  a  single  fire.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant features  to  understand  in  underwriting. 

ONYX  (Imitation)— See  Imitation  Marble. 

OPAL  OIL — A  petroleum  distillate  treated  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  rape  oil. 

OPEN  FINISH— The  absence  of  any  finish  so  that  the 
studding  or  ceiling  joists  are  exposed. 

OPENINGS  TO  ROOF  SPACE  should  be  boxed  to  pre- 
vent fire   entering  the  same.     See   Illustration. 

OPEN  POLICY  ACCOUNTS  are  opened  for  the  conven- 
ience of  brokers  or  assureds  for  the  purpose  of  simplifying 
the  writing  of  various  sums  of  insurance,  covering  at  various 
locations  for  short  terms,  such  as  goods  in  storage.  A  policy 
number  is  assigned  to  the  account  and  all  entries  are  made  in 
an  "open  policy  book"  instead  of  on  a  policy.  At  the  end  of 
each  month  the  company  renders  a  bill  for  the  amount  of 
premium  due  for  insurance  carried   during  the  month. 

OPEN  SPRINKLERS  (automatic)— There  are  a  number 
of  risks  where  the  successful  control  of  fire  is  predicated 
upon  an  immediate  and  more  general  discharge  of  water,  and 
where  the  item  of  water  damage  is  not  to  be  reckoned  with. 
To  meet  this  condition  a  new  idea  in  sprinkler  protection  has 
been  installed  in  the  sulphur-grinding  room  of  the  National 
Sulphur  Co.,  at  Bayonne,  N'.  J.  This  room  is  protected  by 
a  system  of  open  sprinklers  which  are  made  automatic  in 
action  by  the  introduction  of  a  quick-acting  valve  which 
holds  back  the  water,  and  operated  by  an  approved  auto- 
matic heat-actuated  device.  In  other  words,  this  new  sys- 
tem becomes  operative  upon  the  "rate  of  rise"  principle 
rather  than  a  predetermined  temperature  as  in  automatic 
sprinkler  protection.     Open  sprinklers  on  outside  of  buildings 


OPEN    SPRINKLERS 


329 


are  controlled  by  a  valve,  operated  by  hand.  The  system  is 
dry  pipe,  and  heads  are  already  open,  therefore  no  fusing  is 
necessary.  Used  also  to  protect  property  from  exposure 
fires.  Used  at  the  sides  of  piers  for  protection  against  burn- 
ing vessels.     See  Sprinklers. 


^STANDARDS 


/^O/Z, 


OPENINGS  ^-  ROOF  SPACE. 


XF  OP£NS/^GS  THROUGH 
Roof  SFAces  AK£  cur<y/=F 

By  FROr£R JEA/Ci-OSUR^S. 
F/R£  WiUL  B£  R£T/IRDEO  PT^CM 


Copyright.    1915.   G.   A.    Ins.   Co. 


»30  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

OPIUM — This  stock  is  usually  kept  in  metal-lined  cases 
in  the  basement  on  account  of  the  temperature  at  this  point 
and  also  to  keep  away  from  other  commodities.  It  is  very 
valuable.  Fire  and  heat  would  be  likely  to  cause  serious 
damage  to  this  stock.  Water  washes  out  the  morphine  alka- 
loid and  renders  it  valueless.  Opium  is  a  milky  exudation 
from  the  unripe  capsules  of  the  poppy  plant  and  this  milky 
substance  is  rendered  concrete  by  exposure  to  the  air.  As 
found  in  commerce  it  is  a  reddish  brown,  sticky  gum-like 
body  with  a  bitter  taste  and  a  heavy  odor.  It  is  used  as  a 
medicine  and  smoked  as  an  intoxicant.  Crude  opium  is  usu- 
ally handled  in  small  lumps  (gum-like)  about  2  to  3  inches 
in  diameter  and  are  frequently  wrapped  in  tropical  leaves  and 
packed  in  well-constructed  metal-lined  cases. 

OPTICIANS — Principle  hazard  is  lens  grinding.  A  de- 
posit of  pitch  is  put  on  one  side  of  the  lens  before  grinding. 
Pitch  is  usually  heated  by  direct  gas  heat. 

ORDINARY — Designates  a  brick  building  constructed  in 
the  ordinary  manner  with  joist  floors  and  roofs.  Derives 
the  expression  from  the  fact  that  about  ninety-five  per  cent. 
of  brick  buildings  are  of  this  type.  Briefly  speaking,  the 
walls  are  brick;  floors  and  roof,  single  one-inch  boards  on 
wood  beams.  Any  brick  building  inferior  to  semi-mill  or 
mill  construction  can  properly  be  termed  "ordinary." 

ORES — Iron  is  never  found  in  the  earth  in  its  metallic 
state,  but  always  combined  with  oxygen  or  some  other  sub- 
stance  forming   ores. 

ORGANS — Most  companies  refuse  to  write  church  organs 
unless  receiving  a  line  on  the  building  or  other  furniture  of 
the  church.     Very  susceptible  to  fire  and  water  damage. 

OSAGE  ORANGE— A  tree  extensively  cultivated  for 
hedges.  Used  by  dyers  and  tanners,  the  dye  therefrom  being 
chiefly  used  to  color  khaki  uniform  cloth. 

OSMACO  REDUCER— Flash  point  110  deg.  F.  Classed 
as  non-volatile. 

OSTEOCOLLA— Glue  made  from  bones. 

OSTRICH  FEATHERS— If  raw,  will  stand  quite  some 
water  and  smoke,  and  still  give  good  salvage.  Water  has 
very    little    effect    if    clean,    because    the    feathers    must    be 


OTHER  INSURANCE  PERMITTED  33^1 

washed  in  water  anyway.  Finished  feathers  are  very  sus- 
ceptible, owing  to  dyes  used  and  the  prepared  quills. 

OTHER  INSURANCE  PERMITTED— The  body  of  the 
policy  states  that  the  company  must  be  notified  if  other  ia- 
surance  is  taken  to  cover  the  property  insured.  The  Clause 
is  designed  to  frustrate  over-insurance  as  an  inducement  to 
incendiarism.  It  is  now  a  general  practice  to  include  "other 
insurance  permitted"  on  forms  without  ascertaining  the  real 
value  of  the  property.     See  Forms. 

OUT-BUILDINGS — These  innocent-looking  structures  are 
liable  to  contain  almost  anything  from  rags  to  dynamite. 

OUTPUT — A  business  term  meaning  the  product  of 'a  fac- 
tory, irrespective  of  the  sales.  -iO^XO 

OVERALLS— See  Contractors.  h'^b'i^n  ?a 

OVERLOADING  OF  FLOORS— Liable  to  cause  sagging 
and  throw  shafting  out  of  alignment,  resulting  in  friction 
and  over-heated  journals.  Buildings  with  this  feature  should 
be  avoided. 

OVERTIME — Factories  which  continually  work  their  men 
overtime  have  been  known  to  have  numerous  fires,  owing  to 
the  sleepy  indiflFerence  of  the  tired  workmen.  According  to 
the  terms  of  the  printed  policy,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  per- 
mit to  work  later  than  10  p.  m. 

OXALIC  ACID — Prepared  by  heating  sawdust  with  mix- 
ture of  caustic  soda  and  caustic  potash.  Used  in  calico  print- 
ing, dyeing,  bleaching,  cleaning  brass.     Non-hazardous. 

OXIDES  are  so  called  because  they  contain  oxygen. 

OXIDIZING — Combining  a  compound  or  an  element  with 
oxygen.  It  may  be  rapid  or  very  slow,  with  or  without  a 
flame.    See  Spontaneous  Combustion. 

OXIDIZING  SUBSTANCES  should  be  separated  from 
carbonaceous  materials. 

OXY-ACETYLENE  WELDING  — A  combination  of 
oxygen  and  acetylene  used  for  cutting  or  welding,  producing 
a  temperature  as  high  as  6,000  deg.  F.  Used  in  most  large 
machine  shops  and  garage  repair  shops.  The  acetylene  is  sel- 
dom generated  on  the  premises,  but  is  received  in  tubes  or 
tanks  (cylinders)  in  the  same  manner  as  compressed  oxygen. 
The  apparatus  is  portable.   The  cylinders  are  provided  with  a 


Hi  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

fusible  plug  melting  at  240  deg.  F.,  to  prevent  explosions  and 
in  case  of  fire  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape  slowly.  Special 
storage  places  necessary.  Cylinders  not  to  be  subjected 
to  unnecessary  heat,  such  as  near  a  stove.  Exercise  care  in 
handling  for  if  break  occurs,  the  acetylene  gas  under  pres- 
sure (about  1,800  lbs.),  is  released  and  by  proper  mixture 
with  air  is  explosive.  The  oxygen  and  acetylene  cylinders 
each  have  a  pipe  attached,  leading  to  a  nozzle  where  the 
flame  is  used,  and  each  cylinder  has  a  pressure-regulating 
device  indicating  the  working  pressure  being  used  and  the 
pressure  in  the  tank.  These  outfits  are  dangerous  when 
used  by  careless  workmen.     See  Autogenous  Welding. 

OXYGEN — A  colorless,  odorless,  non-inflammable  gas.  It 
is  needed  to  support  combustion.  If  excluded  from  the  air 
surrounding  a  fire,  the  blaze  would  immediately  be  ex- 
tinguished. 

OXYGEN  CLEANING  PROCESS  for  cylinders  of  auto- 
mobile engines.  From  report  of  Underwriters'  Association 
of  New  York. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  an  ordinary  commercial  metal 
oxygen  cylinder  containing  the  gas  at  an  original  pressure 
of  about  300  lbs.  The  outlet  is  piped  to  a  reducing  valve  set 
at  from  15  to  25  lbs.  and  at  this  pressure  the  gas  flows  into 
some  5  to  8  feet  of  rubber  tubing  terminating  in  a  combina- 
tion handle  and  controlling  throttle  by  which  the  oxygen  is 
fed  through  a  small  metal  tube  some  10  to  14  inches  long, 
forming  a  nozzle.  In  some  cases  it  would  appear  that  the  re- 
ducing valve  is  omitted  and  the  pressure  reduced  by  ex- 
pansion only. 

The  practice  seems  to  be  to  remove  spark  plugs  from  the 
automobile  cylinders,  and  bring  each  piston  successively  to 
the  top  of  its  stroke  as  its  own  cylinder  head  is  being  treated, 
thus  closing  both  ports  of  the  cylinder.  A  burning  match 
or  taper  or  a  small  piece  of  kerosene-dipped  waste  or  piece 
of  paper  is  then  dropped  into  the  spark  plug  opening  and  the 
oxygen  jet  introduced.  The  combustion  thereon  becomes 
much  more  active,  consumes  the  original  kindling  rapidly 
and  continues  at  high  temperature  until  all  carbon  deposits 
are  also  burned  away.     When  the  last  of  the  carbon  is  con- 


OXYGEN    GAS    CYLINDERS  333 

sumed  the  flame  ceases.  The  only  outlet  during  this  process 
is  the  spark  plug  opening,  through  which  the  oxygen  is  in- 
troduced and  bits  of  incandescent  carbon,  varying  in  size 
according  to  the  conditions,  some  as  large  as  a  medium-sized 
pea,  are  blown  out  with  considerable  velocity.  Some  pre- 
cautions in  the  shape  of  asbestos  sheets  are  usually  taken  to 
prevent  these  sparks  from  falling  inside  the  engine  hood  or 
elsewhere  where  they  might  do  harm.  It  seems  to  be  the 
practice  to  keep  an  extinguisher  or  two  at  hand  while  the 
work  is  being  done. 

OXYGEN  GAS  CYLINDERS— The  approved  type  have  a 
safety  outlet  sealed  with  a  fusible  metal,  which  melting,  al- 
lows the  slow  escape  of  the  gas.  Storage  should  be  outside 
of  building,  if  possible. 

OXYOZON— Metal  polish.  Flash,  208  deg.  F.  Classed 
non-volatile. 

OZOKERITE— A  natural  mineral  wax.  Melts  ,  it  140 
deg.  F. 

OZONE — A  colorless  gas  with  a  pungent  odor  like 
chlorine. 


PACKING — The  material  placed  in  the  stuffing  box  of 
shafting  to  prevent  leaks.  Also  pipe-covering.  Materials 
used  in  boxing  merchandise. 

PACKING  BINS— All  inflammable  substances  used  in 
packing,  such  as  strav^,  tow,  moss,  tissue  paper,  excelsior, 
should  be  in  a  standard  packing  bin.  Wood  boxes  must  be 
lined  with  lock-jointed  sheets  of  tin,  hiding  the  nails  so  they 
cannot  come  out,  and  prevent  the  oxygen  reaching  the  wood. 
The  cover  of  box  of  same  material,  arranged  with  fusible 
link  to  close  automatically. 

PACKING  CASES— Yards  where  boxes  are  made  or  re- 
made usually  locate  in  congested  sections.  They  may  be  in 
high  piles  under  windows  of  adjacent  buildings  and  contain 
considerable  rubbish.  Sometimes  classed  as  conflagration 
breeders. 

New  Packing  Cases — Firms  making  them  usually  locate 
in  old  buildings.  Ordinary  woodworking  hazards.  If  un- 
dressed lumber  is  used,  planers  are  necessary.  Soft  woods 
are  used  exclusively.  Not  considered  desirable  insurance 
risks. 

PAILS  AND  CASKS— Are  liable  to  freeze  in  cold  build- 
ings. Non-freezing  solutions  should  be  put  in  them  at  the 
approach  of  winter.  Calcium  chloride  can  be  used  to  good 
advantage.     See   Fire   Pails. 

PAINT  REMOVERS  may  contain  alcohol,  wood  alcohol, 
benzole,  gelatine  or  naphtha.  The  flash  points  are  usually 
high,  but  the  wax  content  prevents  evaporation  to  a  certain 
extent  and  the  fire  hazard  is  reduced  thereby. 

PAINTERS  AND  DECORATORS— Busiest  season,  April 
to  October.  Stock  consists  of  the  usual  paints,  wall  paper 
samples,  scaffolds,  ladders  and  may  include  inflammables, 
such     as     benzine     and     turpentines.     Smoking  on  premises 

334 


PAINTS  335 

should  be  prohibited.  Fires  have  resulted  from  spontaneous 
combustion  of  oily  rags  and  overalls.  In  buildings  where 
painters  have  been  at  w^ork,  care  should  be  exercised  to  see 
that  all  refuse  and  waste  material  is  removed  at  night  before 
locking  up.  Gasoline  torches  for^  burning  off  paint  have 
caused  many  fires,  due  mainly  to  the  workman  leaving  the 
device  unattended. 

PAINTINGS — In  writing  insurance  on  paintings  care 
should  be  used  as  to  the  wording  of  the  policy  form,  and  the 
moral  hazard  investigated.  There  are  three  general  forms. 
First,  one  of  agreed  limit  of  value;  second,  "it  is  understood 
and  agreed  that  this  is  its  true  value.'*  Under  this  form,  com- 
pany must  pay  total  loss  in  case  of  fire.  Third,  with  aban- 
donment feature,  the  company  is  required  to  accept  surren- 
der of  paintings  in  case  of  loss.  Co-insurance  is  quite  neces- 
sary in  writing  paintings,  to  protect  the  interest  of  the  com- 
pany. 

PAINTS — Composed  of  pigment  and  liquid.     Pigments  are 

inert   substances,   such   as   asphalt,   clay,   coal,  barytes,   coke, 

coal-tar,     charcoal,     chalk,     feldspar,    carbon,    flint,    granite, 

graphite,  gypsumite,  lamp-black,  lime,  magnesia,  manganese, 

,  ochre,  iron,  pitch,    quartz,   resin,  sand,  silica,  zincs   and   oxides. 

Oils  and  Solvents — Bisulphide  of  carbon,  carbon  tetra- 
chloride, benzine,  cotton-seed  oil,  cod  oil,  poppy  oil,  resin 
oil,  petroleum,  turpentine,  ammonia,  linseed  oil,  alcohol,  acetic 
acid,  sulphuric  acid,  muriatic  acid,  glycerine,  carbonic  acid. 
The  degree  of  inflammability  depends  wholly  on  the  nature 
of  the  liquid  ingredients.  The  quantity  on  hand  for  use 
should  be  kept  to  a  minimum. 

Acid-proof  Paints  may  contain  coal  tar,  pitch,  min- 
erals, cement,  ochre,  asbestos,  slaked  lime,  dryers,  litharge, 
saltpetre,  sulphur,  mica,  zinc,  acetone. 

Fire  and  Waterproof  Paints  may  contain  coal  tar  oil,  gyp- 
sum, japan,  liquid  rubber,  nitric  acid,  silicate,  slate  dust,  sal- 
soda,  potash,  antimony,  sodium,  ochres,  sulphur,  caustic 
potash,  mica,  sulphate  of  zinc,  acetone,  soap,  saltpetre. 

PALM  OIL— A  semi-solid  fat  extracted  from  the  fruit  of 
several  species  of  palm.     Used  in  soap  making. 

PANAMA    STRAW    HATS    are    not    damaged    by    clean 


ase  INSPECTION  and  underwriting 

water  and  only  need  to  be  reblocked  even  though  being  in 
water  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  The  best  grade  of 
Panama  hats  are  woven  by  hand  under  water. 

PANEL  RAISERS — A  wood-working  machine  similar  to 
jointers.  Make  considerable  refuse.  Bad  features,  over- 
heated bearings,  ignition  of  greasy  sawdust. 

PANEL  WALL — An  exterior  non-bearing  wall  in  a  skele- 
ton structure,  built  between  piers  or  columns  and  supported 
at  each  story. 

PAPER  BOXES  are  made  principally  from  cardboard 
which  is  cut  to  size,  grooved  (scored),  where  the  sides  and 
ends  are  to  be  folded,  and  the  edges  fastened  together  by 
strips  of  paper.  This  latter  process  is  called  "stripping."  At 
times  cold  paste  may  be  used  or  the  corners  wired  together. 
The  method  of  glue  heating  is  important.  The  premises  are 
usually  crowed  and  untidy.  Rubbish  and  clippings  may  be 
found  in  concealed  spaces  and  around  steampipes.  The  class 
of  help  is  generally  of  an  inferior  quality  and  the  fire  record 
of  the  class  is  very  poor.  Printing  labels  or  boxes  is  an 
incidental  hazard.     See  Folding  Boxes. 

PAPER-HANGING  FACTORIES— See  Wall  Paper  Fac- 
tories. 

PAPER  MILLS — Raw  materials,  wood  pulp,  rags,  straw, 
hemp,  old  paper,  flax,  jute,  small  amount  of  powdered  gyp- 
sum, clay,  sulphates  of  barium  and  calcium.  Wood  pulp  is 
cut  into  small  bits,  ground  and  pulverized,  pressed  into 
sheets,  baled,  then  sent  to  the  factories. 

Wood  pulp  is  received  at  the  mill  in  bales.  The  bales  are 
split  open  and  the  pulp  separated  into  layers  of  about  2 
inches  thick.  These  layers  are  placed  on  a  movable  belt 
which  carries  it  to  a  cutting  machine.  It  is  then  carried  by 
a  belt  to  the  top  of  the  building,  where  it  is  directed  into 
one  of  four  separate  tanks. 

There  are  two  types  of  cutting  machines  in  use.  One  used 
in  winter  and  the  other  in  summer.  The  type  used  in  winter 
is  similar  to  a  metal  drum  with  three  3-inch  grooves  cut  on 
opposite  sides,  in  which  sharp  steel  plates  are  placed.  These 
revolve  at  high  speed  and  when  the  wood  pulp  is  forced 
through  the  machine,  it  is  cut  into  narrow  strips  about  ^- 


OVIIT!;  PAPER    MILLS  337 

inch  wide  and  4  inches  long.  The  type  of  machine  used  in 
summer  for  cutting  the  wood  pulp  resembles  a  very  coarse 
circular  saw  and  there  are  many  of  them  on  one  shaft  and 
set  about  2  inches  apart.  This  cuts  the  pulp  much  finer  and 
is  used  in  summer  because  the  pulp  is  then  much  softer  and 
can  more  easily  be  cut.     This  process  is  called  shredding. 

The  tanks  used  are  about  25  feet  in  height  and  18  feet  in 
diameter,  constructed  of  wood.  These  are  filled  to  within 
three  or  four  feet  of  the  top  with  water.  The  water  used 
is  called  chalk  water,  and  is  that  which  is  squeezed  out  of 
the  wood  pulp  in  the  final  process  of  making  the  paper. 
About  28  of  these  bales  are  put  into  each  tank  and  also  a 
quantity  of  white  clay  resembling  chalk,  mixed  to  a  milky 
consistency,  and  also  a  small  amount  of  rosin.  This  is 
churned  for  about  one  or  two  hours.  It  is  then  sent  to  an- 
other mill  a  short  distance  away,  where  it  is  further  churned, 
glue  and  alum  is  added,  and  the  pulp  is  then  sent  through 
presses  where  it  is  squeezed  and  made  into  paper. 

The  clay  is  put  into  a  tank  and  thoroughly  mixed  with 
water  for  about  two  hours  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  is 
put  into  another  tank,  where  it  is  mixed  again  so  that  there 
is  no  possibility  of  any  lumps  or  hard  substances  remaining 
in  the  mixture. 

The  hazards  in  this  process  are  the  collecting  of  wood-pulp 
dust  around  the  bearings  of  the  motors  and  cutting  ma- 
chines, which  may  become  oil-soaked  and  are  then  liable 
to  spontaneous  combustion.  It  is  also  conceivable  that  for- 
eign parts,  such  as  metal,  might  enter  the  cutting  machines 
and  there  cause  a  spark,  starting  a  fire. 

There  are  other  processes,  such  as  boiling  in  caustic  soda, 
and  sometimes  lime,  or  in  sulphuric  acid,  sulphate  of  lime 
or  magnesium.  Pulp  is  also  boiled  in  sodium  sulphate.  In 
all  these,  a  similar  process  reduces  the  mass  to  a  pulp,  then 
bleached  in  acids,  the  minerals  added,  colored,  pressed  into 
sheets  of  paper,  sized.  The  sulphur  burners  should  be  in 
a  detached  fire-proof  building.  Dusters  to  -remove  dust  from 
stock  should  have  blower  system.  Rags  and  old  paper  are 
used  in  making  cheap  grade  paper  and  spontaneous  combus- 
tion has  occurred  in  rooms  where  they  are  stored.     Other 


^3i  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

hazards  in  this  process  are  storage  of  sulphide  pulp  and 
lime,  friction  and  hot  bearings  in  high-speed  cutters,  high 
pressure  steam  cookers,  sorting  tables  and  uncleanliness. — 
S.  T.  Skirrow. 

PAPER  PATTERNS— Very  susceptible.  Stocks  may  be 
obsolete.     Lines  should  be  written  with  caution. 

PAPER  RULING— The  machine  consists  of  a  flat  wooden 
bed,  in  centre  and  between  sets  of  wooden  rollers  located 
at  either  end.  Cords  are  run  over  one  set  of  rolls,  through 
an  ink  trough  or  pad  and  rolled  over  the  rollers  at  opposite 
end.  The  paper  is  ruled  as  it  travels  under  these  cords 
across  the  bed  of  the  machine.  For  double  ruling,  springs 
are  connected  to  a  bar  with  tail-piece  of  cloth  wet  with  ink. 
From  this  cloth,  the  ink  runs  down  a  series  of  needles  set 
like  a  comb,  and  as  the  paper  passes  under  the  needles  a 
ruled  line  is  made. 

PAPER  SIZINGS  composed  of  soda  ash,  resin,  alkalis  and 
colors.  In  manufacturing,  the  hazards  are  direct  heat  for 
rosin  kettles,  drying  ovens,  mixing  tanks,  recoopering  and 
painting  barrels  used  in  shipping  the  material. 

PAPER  STOCK— Rags,  old  paper  or  other  material  used 
for  making  paper.     (A  K.  O.  class.) 

PAPER  TUBES— Mailing  tubes,  ribbon  spools  and  the 
like.  In  manufacturing,  raw  stock  is  rolled  paper,  glue, 
pasteboard  and  labels.  Processes  are  slitting,  winding,  cut- 
ting, glueing,  and  tube  forming;  all  similar  to  paper-box 
making. 

PAPIER  MACHE — Produced  hy  pressing  the  pulp  of  pa- 
per between  dies  or  by  pasting  paper  in  sheets  upon  models. 
Porous  paper  is  used,  saturated  with  flour  and  glue.  As  each 
layer  is  made  it  is  heated.  The  form  is  then  varnished, 
dried,  shellaced  and  again  dried.  Principal  hazards  are  dry 
rooms,  use  of  lamp-black  varnish,  heating  of  glue  and  un- 
tidy premises. 

PARAFFINE — A  solid  wax  obtained  from  petroleum. 
Melts  at  125  to  135  deg.  F. 

PARAFFINE  OIL— Heavy,  non-volatile  oil,  high 
flash  point. 


PARTITIONS  W. 

PARANITRANILINE— A  moist  substance  resembling  yel- 
low ochre,  received  in  50-gallon  wood  casks,  claimed  to  be 
non-combustible  and  non-inflammable.  Used  in  combination 
with  iron  filings,  borings  and  muriatic  acid. 

PARAPET — The  portion  of  a  wall  extending  above  the  roof. 

PARAPETS,  while  designed  to  prevent  fires  from  spread- 
ing from  one  building  to  another  over  the  roof  boards,  do 
not  prevent  a  fire  from  spreading  to  a  raised  roof,  monitor 
light  or  roof  structure  on  another  building  if  they  extend 
above  the  parapet. 

PARCHMENT  PAPER— Paper  treated  with  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  washed  in  water,  dipped  in  solution  of  either 
ammonia,   sodium  carbonate  or  zinc  chloride. 

PARIS  GREEN  is  made  of  blue  vitriol,  sulphate  of  copper, 
arsenic  ^nd  soda  ash. 

PARKS — See  Amusement  Enterprises. 

PARQUET  FLOOR  MANUFACTURING— Hazards  of 
woodworking  with  varnishing  and  shellacing,  gluing,  oiling, 
painting.  Boards  that  are  to  be  laid  in  damp  locations  have 
the  underside  coated  with  asphaltum.  Stores  engaged  in  this 
business  sometimes  have  considerable  lumber  on  hand,  a 
generous  supply  of  floor  oil  and  wax,  a  circular  saw  and  a 
machine  for  dressing  floors. 

PARTITIONS  should  be  built  of  incombustible  material. 
Wood  is  not  recommended.  In  sprinklered  risks,  wood  par- 
titions should  not  be  placed  nearer  than  two  feet  from  ceil- 
ing unless  the  upper  two  feet  is  thin  glass  in  light  wood 
frame.  If  partition  is  solid,  it  should  extend  midway  be- 
tween the  sprinkler  heads. 

PARTY  WALL— A  wall  used  to  support  floor  or  roof 
members  of  adjoining  buildings.  Should  be  at  least  twelve 
inches  thick  to  allow  four-inch  space  between  ends  of  beams. 

PASSEMENTERIE— See   Embroideries. 

PASTE  COLORS— Aniline  dyes  are  dissolved  in  hot  water 
in  large  wooden  tanks  and  allowed  to  cool,  then  run  into 
large  wood  vats,  and  the  precipitate  treated  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  sulphuric  acid  and  alum.  This  is  filtered 
through  a  cloth  and  a  pasty  mass  secured  which  is  put  in  a 
steel   mixer   with    lithographic    varnish,    then    through    slow- 


340  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

moving  rolls,  where  most  of  the  water  is  squeezed  out,  and 
dried  in  dry  rooms.  No  benzine,  turpentine  or  alcohol  is 
used  in  the  process.  An  unprofitable  class  to  insure.  See 
Aniline  Dyes. 

PASTE  FILLERS  are  mixtures  of  ground  quartz,  pig- 
ments, oil  and  japan. 

PATENT  AND  ENAMELED  LEATHER— Consists  of 
several  applications  of  "daub"  which  is  generally  linseed  oil 
and  lamp-black  or  some  other  pigment.  It  is  usually  thinned 
with  naphtha.  The  main  hazards  are  boiling  linseed  oil  over 
an  open  fire,  the  reducing  of  oil  with  naphtha,  the  mixing  of 
lamp-black,  preparation  of  the  "daub,"  japanning  the  leather, 
and  drying  ovens.  Solutions  of  nitro-cellulose  also  used. 
A  hazardous  process.     See  Leather. 

PATTERN  LATHES,  for  turning  shoe  lasts,  etc.,  are 
made  so  that  the  scroll  pieces  to  be  turned  at  one  time  are 
rotated  slowly  and  simultaneously  with  a  pattern  over  which 
a  blank  pointer  passes.  By  following  the  surface  of  the 
pattern,  the  pointer  advances  or  withdraws  by  means  of 
a  parallel  or  pantograph  motion,  rapidly  rotating  cutters 
to  and  fro  form  the  various  pieces  to  be  turned.  Large 
amount  of  refuse,  high  speed,  danger  from  overheating  bear- 
ings. 

PATTERNS — Underwriters  seldom  write  patterns  without 
having  a  share  of  the  stock  or  machinery  and  usually  limit 
the  pattern  item  to  not  more  than  10  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
of  the  policy.  Patterns  are  easily  damaged  and  difficult  to 
replace  without  much  labor.  Should  be  stored  in  vaults.  See 
Dress  Patterns;  also  Records. 

PAWNBROKERS'  STOCK— Considered  good  inswrance  if 
mainly  covering  on  silverware,  jewelry  and  tools.  Where  the 
stock  is  largely  wearing  apparel,  the  risk  is  not  as  attractive. 
The  stock  belongs  to  the  person  pledging  same,  except  the 
right  and  interest  which  the  pawnbroker  acquires  by  law 
when  accepting  same.    See  Right  and  Interest. 

PEANUTS  are  rendered  unfit  for  food  if  subjected  to  fire 
damage,  and  little  salvage  can  be  expected.  An  analysis  of 
burned  peanuts  after  a  recent  fire  showed  that  the  oils,  fats, 
protein  and  ammonia  contents  were  greatly  reduced. 


PEARL   BUTTONS  341 

PEARLASH— See  Carbonate  of  Potash. 

PEARL  BUTTONS— Snail,  oyster  and  mother-of-pearl  us- 
ually used.  The  snail  is  cheap,  the  mother-of-pearl  expensive. 
A  greater  portion  of  all  the  shell  is  wasted  in  the  cutting  ow- 
ing to  the  varying  thicknesses.  As  the  shell  is  worked  the 
value  increases.  The  mother-of-pearl  veneers  are  the  most 
expensive,  as  all  the  shell  is  ground  from  the  back,  leaving 
only  the  ornamental  face.  The  thinner  the  veneer,  the  more 
expensive  per  pound.  The  thinnest  cost  $25  to  $200  per 
pound. 

Pearl  is  porous.  As  it  is  worked,  it  is  kept  soaked  in  water. 
Considerable  water  damage  can  result  from  a  fire  if  the  shell 
is  left  for  any  length  of  time  in  dirty  or  stained  water,  be- 
cause it  will  become  discolored.  Even  smoky  water  will 
lessen  its  value.  The  shell  buttons  are  cleaned  with  pumice 
stone,  emery  dust  and  muriatic  acid.  Fire  at  a  temperature 
of  an  ordinary  baking  oven  will  ruin  shell  if.  subjected  to  the 
heat  for  as  much  as  ten  minutes.  The  fire  eats  out  the  car- 
bon, leaving  only  lime.  Gas  blow  pipes  and  small  furnaces 
are  required  for  heating  lead  for  buttons  with  lead  backs. 

PEAS,  if  wet  and  left  in  bags,  will  mildew  and  may  be  con- 
fiscated by  health  authorities. 

PEAT  MOSS — Used  in  stables  in  place  of  straw,  is  cleaner, 
less  dusty  and  presents  less  fire  hazard. 

PEBBLE  MILL — A  tumbler  revolving  on  an  inclined  axis. 
Used  for  grinding.  The  material  to  be  ground  is  put  in  the 
mill  with  iron  balls  or  round  stones.  These  grind  the  ma- 
terial as  the  machine  revolves. 

PENCIL  WORKS— May  include  steel  and  fountain  pen 
making,  involving  wood,  metal  and  rubber  working  and  ma- 
chine shops.  Use  linseed  oil,  benzine,  alcohol,  turpentine, 
varnish,  lacquer,  crude  oil,  graphite,  white  lead,  dryers,  amyl 
acetate  and  paraffine.  Pencil  rounding  machines  create  con- 
siderable dust  and  fine  shavings,  and  should  be  equipped  with 
blowers. 

Hazards  of  dry  rooms,  gluing,  embossing  presses,  lacquer- 
ing by  dip  process,  color  grinding  and  mixing,  graphite  and 
firing  in  retorts,  kilns  for  baking  pencil  leads. 

Gold  and  Silver  Pencils — Hazards  of  goldsmiths  and  silver- 


342  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

smiths,  metal  working,  annealing,  tempering  and  engraving. 

Rubber  Fountain  Pen  Holders — Hazards  of  rubber  making, 
calendering,  steam  heated  mixers,  cutters  and  tube  machines, 
sandpapering,  vulcanizing,  dry  rooms,  buffing,  use  of  rubber 
cement. 

Incidental  hazards  of  printing  and  paper  box  making. 

Copying  Pencils  and  Ink  Pencils  are  made  of  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  aniline  violet  added  to  graphite  and  china 
clay. 

ColoredL  Pencils  are  made  of  Prussian  blue  or  chrome  yel- 
low mixed  with  white  wax  and  tallow. 

PENTANE— A  clear  colorless  volatile  liquid.  Boils  at  95 
deg.  F.  or  less.  Flash  point  zero  F.  Highly  inflammable.  It 
is  obtained  from  the  more  volatile  portions  of  petroleum. 

PENTINE— A  benzine  substitute,  flash  102  deg.  F.  Classed 
non-volatile. 

PENTONE— A  hydro-carbon.    See  Gas  Plants. 

PENT  HOUSE— The  enclosure  on  the  roof  which  is  gen- 
erally used  for  the  elevator  machinery  or  store  room. 

PER  CAPITA  FIRE  LOSS— See  Fire  Loss  per  capita. 

PER  CENT.  PROFIT  INSURANCE— See  Profit  Insur- 
ance. 

PERCHLORIDE  OF  POTASH— A  white  crystalline  solid 
used  as  an  oxidizing  agent. 

PER  DIEM  PROFIT  INSURANCE— See  Profit  Insur- 
ance. 

PERFORATED  PIPES  are  not  recommended,  as  they  al- 
low the  water  to  flow  throughout  the  entire  floor  instead  of 
only  directly  to  the  seat  of  the  fire,  as  in  automatic  sprinkler 
equipments.  The  large  water  damage  incurred,  even  at  small 
fires,  offsets  the  salvage  which  might  otherwise  be  expected. 

PERFUMERS,  making  toilet  preparations,  mix,  sift  and 
grind  dry  powders.  Use  alcohol,  essential  oils,  nitric,  hydro- 
chloric and  oxalic  acids,  paraffine  and  herbs.  Confectioners 
stoves  usually  used  for  heating  salves.  Always  inspect  be- 
fore binding  this   class. 

PERMANGANATE  OF  POTASH  is  subject  to  sponta- 
neous combustion  whenever  brought  into  contact  with  or- 
ganic  matter.     This   may   occur   either   from   foreign    matter 


vJK    :  PETROLEUM   OIL  343 

leaking  into  the  packages,  or  from  small  crystals  of  per- 
manganate falling  on  the  floor  of  a  warehouse.  Agitation, 
such  as  caused  by  trucking,  will  facilitate  the  process. 

PERNASEL — A  dipping  fluid  for  coloring  glass  bulbs.  In- 
flammable. 

PEROLIN — Composed  of  sand,  iron  slag,  sawdust,  paraf- 
fine  oil,  is  a  disinfectant  and  an  ordinary  floor  oil. 

PEROXIDE  OF  BARIUM,  if  exposed  to  the  air  and  sun, 
may  cause  spontaneous  combustion. 

PEROXIDE  OF  SODIUM  is  a  yellowish  white  powder 
used  as  a  bleaching  agent.  Chemically  it  is  a  combination 
of   the    elements    sodium   and    oxygen    in    equal   proportions. 

It  is  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent,  and  has  a  strong  affinity 
for  water.  In  combination  with  the  latter  it  forms  caustic 
soda  and  hydrogen  peroxide.  As  a  fire  hazard,  this  sub- 
stance ranks  among  the  most  dangerous  found  in  ordinary 
manufacturing  plants.  The  danger  lies  in  dropping  the  sub- 
stance on  tables  or  floors,  where  it  is  liable  to  get  wet,  or  in 
leaving  it  in  uncovered  vessels  where  water  may  be  dropped 
on  it.  In  combination  with  water  it  may  heat  so  rapidly 
as  to  set  fire  to  surrounding  material- — Gorham  Dana. 

PET-PRO-CO  SPIRITS— Flashes  at  108  deg.  F.  in  open 
cup  tester.     Graded  as  non-volatile. 

PETROLEUM  OR  CRUDE  OIL— (Charles  E.  Jahne.)  A 
natural  rock  oil  composed  of  hydrocarbons.  It  is  classed 
with  natural  gas  and  asphalt  as  bituniens- — natutal  gas  con- 
taining the  more  volatile  members  of  the  series,  and  asphalt 
the  solid,  while  petroleum  is  composed  chiefly  of  the  liqilid 
members,  although  it  contains  a  small  proportion  of  the  solid 
and  gaseous  compounds.  Other  names  of  petroleum  are  rock 
oil,  mineral  oil  and  naphtha,  the  latter  being  employed  espe- 
cially in  Europe  for  the  Russian  oils.  In  1635  Pennsylvania 
settlers  dug  small  wells  and  found  it  seeping  in  from  surf 
rounding  rocks.  Wells  were  driven  to  greater  depths  and 
the  flow  naturally  increased.  New  fields  continue  to  yield 
sjnie,  especially  in  Pennsylvania, "Ohio,  West  Virginia,.  Ken- 
tucky, Texas  and  California.  Of  the  foreign  countries,  Rus- 
sia is  the  most  serious  competitor  the  United  States  has  in 
the  oil  production.     Petroleum  is  of  various  tints,  but  largely 


344  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  green  and  black.  The  modern  method  of  drilling  for  pe- 
troleum is  similar  to  that  used  in  sinking  artesian  wells.  The 
most  prominent  feature  of  the  oil  drilling  outfit  being  the 
derrick,  which  is  a  tall  pyramid-like  wooden  frame  about  75 
feet  high,  12  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  3  feet  at  the  top.  A 
churn  drill  is  used.  A  round  rock  core  is  drawn  out  and  an 
iron  pipe  inserted.  In  many  cases  the  oil  does  not  flow  when 
the  oil  rock  is  struck,  and  it  is  customary  to  explode  a  tor- 
pedo in  the  hole,  whereupon  the  oil  gushes  out  with  force 
and  continues  to  flow  until  well  or  vein  is  drained.  The 
cheap  and  rapid  transportation  of  crude  oil  from  the  wells  to 
the  refineries  is  one  of  great  importance.  At  first  the  oil  was 
transported  on  carts,  then  by  barges  or  tank  cars,  but  the 
modern  method  is  by  pipe  lines.  Pipes  are  four  to  eight 
inches  in  diameter  laid  underground  with  bends  in  them  at 
regular  intervals  to  allow  for  expansion  and  contraction. 
Stations  with  pumps  and  storage  tanks  are  placed  every  25 
or  30  miles,  the  oil  being  received  in  tanks  at  one  station  and 
pumped  from  there  to  tanks  at  the  next  station.  Since  all  pe- 
troleum contains  more  or  less  wax  or  paraffine,  much  trouble 
is  often  experienced  in  the  clogging  of  the  pipes,  especially 
in  cold  weather,  and  to  clean  them  out,  an  instrument  known 
as  a  "go-devil"  is  sent  through  the  pipes.  This  is  so  con- 
structed that  it  is  forced  along  by  the  moving  current  of  oil 
and  scrapes  the  paraffine  coating  off  of  the  inside  of  the  pipes. 
Pipe  lines  now  run  from  the  Appalachian  region  to  New 
York,  Jersey  City,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Chicago,  Cleve- 
land. The  refining  process  consists  of  the  separation  of  the 
component  hydrocarbons  by  a  system  of  fractional  distilla- 
tion. This  is  usually  carried  out  by  the  use  of  horizontal  steel 
cylinder  tanks  of  about  600  barrels  capacity  each,  with  a 
dome  on  top  of  it,  and  from  this  dome  is  a  pipe  which  carries 
the  vapor  from  the  steam  heated  oil  to  a  condenser,  which 
is  a  series  of  pipes  surrounded  by  cold  water.  When  the  oil 
is  placed  in  the  tank  or  still,  and  the  steam  is  turned  on, 
the  various  increases  of  temperature  cause  the  vapors  of  the 
various  products  to  escape  to  the  condensers  intended  for 
them. 

The   first  product  is  a  light  gas  known   as   cymogen,   for 


PHONOGRAPHS  345 

medical  purposes,  escaping  at  32  deg.  F.  The  next  is  rhigo- 
lene,  a  petroleum  ether  sometimes  called  sherwood  oil,  at  65 
deg.  F.  The  next  is  naphtha  at  80  to  120  deg.  F.  The  next 
benzine  at  120  to  150  deg.  F.  The  gasoline  product  will  vary 
from  190  to  200  deg.  F.,  depending  on  oil's  condition.  Ligroine 
is  a  special  grade  solvent  naphtha  produced  at  a  boiling  point 
from  190  deg.  F.  to  250  deg.  F.  Then  follow  the  illuminating 
oils  of  kerosene  type.  The  residuum  remaining  in  the  still  is 
then  passed  through  a  further  process  and  produces  paraffine 
wax  and  lubricating  oils.  The  composite  remaining  at  the 
ending  is  used  for  fuel  oils. 

Gasoline,  naphtha  or  benzine,  while  lying  absolutely  mo- 
tionless is  not  dangerous,  but  the  slightest  tremor  will  cause 
a  vapor  to  rise,  and  this  vapor  coming  in  contact  with  gas 
or  other  flame  will  ignite,  and  a  stream  of  fire  will  follow 
from  the  point  of  ignition  to  the  body  from  whence  comes 
the  vapor  and  an  explosion  will  follow.  A  lighted  match  was 
dropped  into  a  barrel  of  benzine  which  was  absolutely  still 
and  no  explosion  followed,  but  if  that  barrel  had  been  dis- 
turbed a  little  and  the  vapor  had  arisen  ever  so  lightly,  an 
explosion  would  surely  have  resulted.  These  oils  are  classed 
as  extremely  volatile,  and  for  that  reason  the  insurance  and 
fire  departments  are  compelled  to  prescribe  stringent  laws 
for  the  storage  knd  handling  of  them.     See  Gasoline. 

Petroleum  Ether — See  Benzine;  also  Ether. 

Petroleum  Naphtha — See  Benzine. 

Petroletim  Oil  may  include  any  oil  derived  from  crude  pe- 
troleum. 

Petroleum  Soap — Common  soap  made  from  resin  and  low 
grade  tallow  containing  petroleum  bodies  mechanically  held. 

Petroleum  Spirits — Highly  inflammable.     See  Benzine. 

PEWTER— An  alloy  of  tin,  lead  and  antimony. 

PHENOL  is,  chemically  speaking,  hydroxy-b-enzine,  and  is 
prepared  from  the  carbolic  or  middle  oils  by  treatment  with 
caustic  soda,  alkali  and  precipitation  with  sulphuric  acid, 
followed  by  refining  by  distillation. — W.  D.  Grier. 

PHONOGRAPHS— Dealers  in  this  line  may  carry  a  large 
quantity  of  records  equal  to  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  the 
value  of  the  entire   stock.     They  are  kept  in  open  pigeon- 


346  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

holed  cabinets,  and  are  very  susceptible.     Repairing  and  re- 
finishing  machines  are  incidental  hazards. 

Records  are  made  of  such  materials  as  shellac,  wax,  sili- 
cates, rosin,  and  lamp-black  for  making  composition  records; 
copper  and  brass  sheets;  copper  and  nickel  salts  for  plating. 
Processes  are  grinding,  compounding,  mixing  and  rolling 
stock  for  records;  wax  discs  and  cylinder  making,  buffing, 
polishing,  plating,  machine  shop  work  and  assembling. 

PHOSPHATE  OF  AMMONIA— Sometimes  used  for  fire- 
proofing  scenery. 

PHOSPHORETTED  HYDROGEN— When  phosphorus 
combines  with  hydrogen  it  forms  a  gas  having  a  strong  odor 
resembling  garlic.  This  gas  takes  fire  of  itself  when  mixed 
with  air  and  burns  with  a  bright  yellow  light.  It  is  this  gas, 
sometimes  seen  at  night  over  marshy  land,  which  causes  the 
light  to  be  called  ''Will  o'  the  wisp." 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID— When  phosphorus  burns  it  forms 
a  snow-like  substance  which  dissolves  very  rapidly  in  water, 
forming  phosphoric  acid. 

PHOSPHORUS— Generally  sold  in  cylinders,  is  com- 
monly obtained  from  bones  in  which  it  exists,  combined  with 
lime.  It  is  white  and  has  a  waxy  appearance.  It  has  so 
strong  an  affinity  for  oxygen  that  it  is  kept  in  water.  Ex- 
posed to  th-e  air,  fumes  arise  from  the  surface.  This  results 
from  its  uniting  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  It  takes  fire 
from  so  little  heat  that  it  is  necessary  to  be  very  cautious  in 
experimenting  with  it.  It  is  so  eager  to  unite  with  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air  that  a  little  friction  produces  heat  enough  to 
make  it  unite  with  it  and  so  quickly  as  to  burn.  (Hooker.) 
It  is  used  in  most  laboratories.  In  one  of  the  colleges  of 
Brooklyn  a  bottle  containing  phosphorus  immersed  in  water 
was  upset  and  immediately  set  fire  to  the  surrounding  wood- 
work. It  gave  off  a  luminous  glow  and  had  the  appearance 
of  a  larRC  fire. 

PHOSPHORUS  (red)  amorphous,  a  reddish  brown  pow- 
der not  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion.     Inflammable. 

PHOSPHORUS  (yellow)— A  waxy  solid.  Will  ignite  at 
ordinary  temperature  if  exposed  to  th$  air.     Usually  shipped 


'  PHOTO   ENGRAVING  347 

under  water.  Besides  being  very  poisonous,  it  is  very  in- 
flammable. 

PHOSPHORUS  (white)— The  same  as  yellow  phosphorus. 

PHOTO  AND  ADVERTISING  MOUNTS— Cardboard 
used  as  mounts  for  photographs  and  the  backs  for  signs. 
Similar  hazards  to  paper  box  making  with  gluing  and  em- 
bossing. 

PHOTO  ENGRAVING— Half-tone  work  is  the  process 
which  reproduces  pictures  or  designs  on  metal  plates  by 
means  of  photography.  The  name  half-tone  is  applied  to  this 
kind  of  work  because  in  printing  the  picture  or  design  on 
the  plate,  a  glass  with  fine  intersecting  lines  is  placed  be- 
tv/een  the  plate  and  the  negative.  All  that  appears  in  the 
picture  from  these  fine  intersecting  lines  are  numerous  small 
dots,  each  of  which  results  from  the  point  of  intersection  of 
the  above-mentioned  lines.  It  is  necessary  to  mention  at  this 
point  that  in  half-tone  work  the  wet  plate  process  is  used,  and 
this  necessitates  the  use  of  collodion  in  preparing  the  nega- 
tive. Collodion  is  therefore  one  of  the  important  hazards. 
This  mixture  is  usually  prepared  on  the  premises,  conse- 
quently open  lights  in  the  vicinity  are  dangerous.  As  it 
evaporates  quickly,  and  is  quite  expensive,  the  bottles  in 
which  it  is  kept  are  seldom  left  uncorked.  Electric  lights  are 
usually  used  in  dark  rooms.  After  completing  the  negative, 
it  is  printed  in  the  usual  way  on  a  copper  plate  sensitized  to 
receive  the  impression,  and  developed  in  chemical  solutions, 
then  gently  heated  over  a  gas  flame.  It  is  then  placed  in  an 
iron  solution  which  etches  all  the  surface  except  the  design 
or  picture  to  be  printed.  The  plate  is  then  trimmed  and  cut 
out  by  power  machines  and  is  finally  backed  with  a  wooden 
block. 

PHOTO-ENGRAVURE  PLATES  are  steel  faced  copper 
plates.  Hazards  are  plating,  washing  plates  in  whiting  and 
nitric  acid  and  coating  with  wax  to  prevent  rusting.  Method 
of  wax  heating  is  important. 

PHOTOGRAPHERS*  DRY  PLATE  (mfg.)~Sheet  glass 
is  sensitized  (coated)  with  emulsion  of  gelatine  and  nitrate  of 
silver,  usually  on  a  coating  machine  by  cold  process,  the 
plate  being     passed   through   a   trough   of   the    solution   and 


34$  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

dropped  on  a  felt  belt  passing  through  the  machine.  No 
heat;  on  the  contrary,  ice  is  put  in  tub  under  emulsion  to 
keep  it  cool;  dried  in  low  temperature  room.  Chemicals 
used  include  nitric,  acetic,  euramic  acids,  ether,  ethyl  alcohol, 
nitrous  phenol,  chlorides.  In  making  colored  plates,  the 
above  process  is  also  followed,  anilines  being  used  for  col- 
oring. Printing  in  some  places  is  done  by  an  electric  printer 
operated  by  motor  of  light  voltage  and  ''lined"  (blue  lines 
put  in)  by  violet  rays  with  arc  light  under  a  hood.  May 
use  an  autoclave  for  testing  colors.  Stock  of  plates  is  very 
delicate.  They  are  stored  in  a  dark  room  and  are  ruined  if 
subjected  to  light  as  would  be  the  case  in  a  fire.  They  also 
would  be  spoiled  by  water.  Hazards  are  indicated  above  and 
include  photographing,  developing  and  printing,  dry  rooms 
and  gas  heated  developer. 

PHOTOGRAPHERS'  Developing  Solution  consists  of  dis- 
tilled water,  silver  nitrate,  citric,  oxalic  and  other  acids,  and 
solutions  of  a  non-hazardous  character. 

PHOTOGRAPHY— In  wet  plate  work,  collodion  is  gen- 
erally used,  and  this  is  a  hazardous  process.  In  dry  plate 
work  only  mild  acids  are  used  and  the  process  is  not  hazard- 
ous. Dark  rooms  should  have  electric  light  rather  than  gas 
or  kerosene  oil. 

PIANO  MFG. — Lumber  thoroughly  dried  in  kiln  is  brought 
to  the  mill-run,  sawed  and  planed  into  the  proper  sizes. 
Many  parts  are  made  of  quarter-sawed  pieces  glued  together. 
The  wooden  portions  of  a  grand  piano  are  referred  to  as  con- 
sisting of  cases  and  trimmings.  The  case  includes  the  rims 
with  the  supporting  beams  or  braces  within,  the  legs  and 
pedals.  The  rim  is  made  of  continuous  pieces  of  wood  (ve- 
neer) glued  together.  The  outside  finishing  veneer  is  ap- 
plied at  the  same  time  when  forming  is  done.  The  processes 
consist  of  sandpapering,  finishing  (which  includes  staining, 
filling,  varnishing,  rubbing,  flowing  and  polishing.  The  sound- 
ing board  (or  belly)  is  the  most  important  part  of  a  piano, 
and  calls  for  a  special  kind  of  wood,  thoroughly  dried.  The 
work  on  iron  plate,  wnres  and  stringing,  hammers,  heads 
and  actions  presents  very  little  fire  hazards.  The  hazards  are 


PIERS  349 

those  of  woodworking  plants  where  varnishing  is  done.  See 
Celluloid  Piano  Keys. 

Sea  grass  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  cloth  for  polishing 
cases.  The  rubbing  varnish  contains  oil  and  turpentine.  The 
sea  grass  is  very  light  and  evidently  confines  the  heat  more 
than  cotton  cloth  or  waste,  as  spontaneous  combustion  in 
waste  cans  is  very  frequent.  It  will  heat  up  in  a  few  hours 
sufficiently  to  warm  the  can. 

PICKERS— See  Cotton. 

PICKLING — The  term  is  used  in  connection  with  plating 
risks,  where  the  metal  is  cleaned  by  dipping  in  nitric  and 
sulphuric  acid. 

PICRATES  should  be  kept  away  from  mineral  acids,  car- 
riers of  oxygen,  ozone,  organic  substances  and  sulphur.  Ob- 
tained from  carbolic  acid  or  phenol  by  the  action  of  nitric 
acid.  Used  as  dye  for  woolens  and  leather,  and  making  ex- 
plosives.   Highly  explosive. 

PICRIC  ACID  is  highly  explosive. 

PICTURE  FRAME  DEALERS— Hazard  is  hand  wood- 
working, usually  only  mitering  of  corners,  varnishing,  paint- 
ing and  gilding.  Susceptible  stock.  Other  classes  of  art 
goods  may  be  included  in  the  stock. 

PICTURE  FRAME  MAKINO-Woodworking  hazards, 
paper  back  making,  painting,  bronzing,  varnishing,  glazing, 
embossing  mouldings  on  gas-heated  presses.  A  poor  fire 
record  class. 

PIE  BAKERIES — Hazards  include  mixing  dough  by  ma- 
chinery, preparing  and  cooking  fruits  and  jellies  on  confec- 
tioners' stoves,  lard  and  grease  melting  pots,  baking.  Us- 
ually greasy  risks. 

PIER — The  support  of  two  adjacent  arches  or  the  support 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  building.  If  bond  and  cap  stones  are 
in  pier  they  should  be   insulated. 

PIERS — Open  piers  are  usually  built  of  crib  construction, 
i.  e.,  wood  piling  (usually  creosotcd),  then  the  heavy  wood 
timbers  and  cross  bracing,  and  finally  the  heavy  plank  floor- 
ing. The  frame  covered  pier  is  similar  to  above,  except  that 
it  is  covered  over  with  a  frame  shed  or  enclosure.  The 
corrugated  iron  pier  is  the  type  usually  found  in  local  ter- 


tS^  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

ritory,  with  sides  of  corrugated  iron  on  iron  or  angle  iron  on 
wood  stud,  the  roof  of  corrugated  iron  on  wood  purlins  on 
steel  truss  or  wood  frame.  The  fireproof  pier  is  of  non- 
combustible  material  throughout,  although  some  piers  having 
wooden  piling  have  been  termed  fireproof.  The  strictly  fire- 
proof pier  should  have  incombustible  piling  (concrete)  with 
a  reinforced  concrete  flooring  or  base,  the  sides  of  pier  struc- 
ture either  concrete,  copper  filled  in  with  concrete  or  terra- 
cotta tile.  All  steel  work,  including  roof  trusses,  should  be 
protected  with  at  least  two  inches  of  concrete  or  tile.  Sky- 
lights should  be  thin  glass  in  metal  frame  with  standard 
screen  above.  Curtain  boards  should  be  extended  from  the 
roof  to  divide  the  roof  area  and  thus  prevent  the  rapid  spread 
of  fire  along  the  ceiling.  These  should  extend  to  the  lower 
side  of  the  roof  trusses,  or  lower  if  possible.  In  lieu  of 
curtain  boards,  the  area  can  be  divided  into  smaller  sections 
by  the  use  of  fire  walls,  which  should  extend  to  below  low 
water  line  and  be  parapetted  and  have  standard  doors.  Par- 
titions or  walls  enclosing  the  boiler,  oil  room,  rigging  and 
other  storage  rooms  should  be  of  fireproof  material  with  la- 
belled doors  at  the  openings.  The  fire  protection  usually 
consists  of  an  approved  standpipe  and  hose  system,  a  supply 
of  water  casks  with  pails,  and  a  special  fire  signal.  A  few  of 
the  latest  types  are  protected  by  an  approved  dry  pipe  sprink- 
ler system  and  day  and  night  watchman  service.  The  occu- 
pancy is  usually  general  merchandise  with  fi.bre  in  transit. 
At  this  writing  war  material,  including  small  arm  ammuni- 
tion, may  be  included.  Automobiles  enter  to  unload  or  load 
freight.  The  fire  record  of  the  unsprinkled  non-fireproof 
piers  is  far  from  good.  Fires  have  been  spread  by  burning 
objects  floating  under  piers,  therefore  we  recommend  plank- 
ing for  enclosing  sides  and  ends  of  piers  to  extend  to  low 
water  mark.  Hazards  may  include  immigrant  stations  with 
lunch  counters,  gas  or  coal  stoves  in  workmen's  lounging 
rooms,  baling  waste  paper  from  railroad  cars  and  smoking. 
Pier  fires  are  usually  severe,  owing  to  large  areas.  (C.  C. 
Dominge,  ''Live  Articles  on  Special  Hazards,"  The  Weekly 
Underwriter.)     See  Cotton;  see  Canals  and  Feeders. 

PIGMENTS — The  dry  inert  colors  used  in  paint  making. 


PIPE    LINES  351 

PILASTER — A  reinforcement  of  a  wall  by  increased  thick- 
ness at  various  points.  Used  mainly  as  an  additional  sup- 
port for  wide  span  roofs. 

PILES — Large  timbers  driven  into  the  ground  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  a  secure  foundation. 

PINTLE — A  contrivance  of  cast  iron,  consisting  of  two 
thick  circular  plates  connected  by  a  solid  cylindrical  sup- 
porter, placed  between  posts  between  the  floors  of  stories. 
Used  in  mill  constructed  buildings. 

PINTSCH  GAS— Pintsch  process.  Petroleum  oil  subjected 
to  high  temperature,  which  converts  oil  into  a  vapor  gas, 
and,  after  going  through  purifying  process,  is  pumped  into 
compression  holders  to  a  pressure  of  75  pounds  or  more. 
By  this  pressure  the  gas  is  carried  by  underground  pipes  to 
car  tanks.  Oil  is  stored  underground.  Other  apparatus  con- 
sists of  retorts,  purifying  cylinders  and  gasometer.  The  tar 
deposit  is  put  in  iron  drums.  The  great  danger  is  of  escap- 
ing gas.    See  Oil  Gas. 

PINTSCH  TAR  OIL— Flash  point  above  100  deg.  F. 
Classed  as  non-volatile. 

PIPE  LINES,  if  above  ground  and  used  to  convey  hazard- 
ous liquids  such  as  gasoline  or  crude  oil,  are  not  looked  upon 
as  desirable  by  the  inspector  or  underwriter.  A  short  time 
ago  the  following  was  reported:  "An  overhead  pipe  line  was 
used  for  conveying  crude  oil  from  Penn  Horn  creek  on  the 
Hackensack  meadows  to  Bayonne  for  refining.  It  is  believed 
the  pipe  was  weakened  by  the  shaking  it  received  a  month 
ago  when  the  munitions  plant  at  Kingsland  was  blown  up. 
The  oil  seeped  out  until  the  surface  under  the  pipe  line  was 
coated  with  it,  and  it  is  supposed  a  hot  spark  from  a  passing 
locomotive  ignited  it  and  a  severe  fire  resulted.  All  pipe  lines 
should  be  underground  and  securely  bedded.  See  Petro- 
leum.    See  Gasoline. 

PIPING — Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its 
carrying  capacity  four  times.  Suppose  a  2-inch  pipe  is  used; 
the  cross  section  2-inch  pipe  contains  4  square  inches,  which 
is  the  result  of  squaring  the  diameter  (multiply  the  diameter 
by  itself).  A  4-inch  pipe  will  have  a  cross  section  of  16 
square  inches,  which  is  four  times  greater  than  a  2-inch  pipe. 


352  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

The  orifice  of  a  sprinkler  is  f^-inch  diameter,  or  .39  square 
inches.     See  Water  Mains. 

PIPE  OPENINGS— Ordinary  Construction,  Single  Floors. 
Flooring  to  be  closely  fitted  around  all  pipes,  except  steam 
pipes,  and  each  pipe  to  be  provided  with  a  satisfactory  floor 
plate.  Steam  pipes  to  be  fitted  with  metal  sleeves  in  accord- 
ance with  requirements  of  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Un- 
derwriters. 

Ordinary  Construction,  Double  Floors,  Mill  Construct- 
ed Floors — Flooring  to  be  closely  fitted  around  all 
pipes  except  steam  pipes,  and  each  pipe  to  be  pro- 
vided with  a  satisfactory  floor  plate.  Steam  pipes  to  be 
fitted  with  metal  sleeves  in  accordance  with  requirements  of 
the  New  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  Space  between  pipe 
and  sleeve  to  be  filled  in  with  non-combustible  material  (min- 
eral wool,  asbestos,  etc.),  securely  held  in  place  by  satis- 
isfactory  ceiling  and  floor  plates.  Each  pipe  opening  to  be 
provided  with  substantial  wood  curbing  extending  3  inches 
above  floor.  A  water-tight  joint  to  be  effected  between  curb- 
ing and  flooring  by  means  of  tar,  paper  properly  flashed 
around  the  curbing. 

Fireproof  Floors — Space  between  pipes  (except  those  sub- 
ject to  unusual  expansion,  such  as  steam,  hot  water,  etc.), 
and  floor  arches  to  be  made  water-tight  by  means  of  Port- 
land cement  mortar  properly  filled  in. 

Steam  pipes,  etc.,  to  be  provided  with  an  approved  water- 
tight metal  sleeve  cemented  into  floor  as  above,  and  ex- 
tending 3  inches  above  finished  floor  surface.  Portion  of 
sleeve  above  floor  surface  to  be  protected  from  injury  by  a 
cast  iron  collar  or  by  a  curb  of  Portland  cement  mortar  at 
least  3  inches  thick.  Space  between  pipe  and  sleeve  to  be 
filled  with  non-combustible  material  (mineral  wool,  asbestos, 
etc.),  securely  held  in  place  by  satisfactory  ceiling  and  floor 
.  plates. 

PIPES  (smoking  pipes) — Briar  root  received  in  crude  form, 
cut,  bored,  sandpapered,  varnished  and  buffed.  Holes  are 
filled  with  stick  shellac  heated  over  gas  flame.  Gas  heat  used 
for  glue  and  oils.     Woodworking  machinery  creates  consid- 


PIPE  SHAFTS  353 

erable  fine  shavings  and  dust,  and  should  have  blower  at- 
tachments. 

PIPE  SHAFTS  should  be  enclosed  in  standard  shafts  of 
concrete,  terra  cotta  or  brick,  with  standard  fire  doors  at  all 
openings  and  a  thin  glass  skylight  at  the  roof.  Many  fires, 
especially  in  fireproof  office  buildings,  have  started  in  these 
shafts,  which  contain  electric  cables  and  canvas  wrapped 
.  pipes.  There  may  also  be  waste  paper  and  rubbish.  Once 
on  fire,  they  are  hard  to  extinguish.  It  sometimes  becomes 
necessary  to  chop  away  walls  and  floors  to  locate  the  seat 
of  the  fire. 

PITCH  KETTLE— Usually  a  direct-fire  heated  brick  set 
furnace.  Used  in  breweries  to  heat  pitch  for  the  lining  of 
kegs.  Room  containing  pitching  apparatus  should  be  cut  off 
in  a  standard  manner.  Superheated  steam  is  use4  to  melt 
out  the  old  pitch  in  the  kegs.  '')orH"    ^■ 

PITCHED  ROOF— A  sloping  roof. 

PIT  PITCH— Made  of  gas  tar. 

PLACERS — Persons  employed  by  brokerage  houses  to 
place  insurance  with  companies.  One  of  the  main  requisites 
of  the  business  is  to  be  frank  and  honest  in  the  statements 
made  about  the  risk  to  the  underwriter  or  counterman.  One 
false  statement  or  "fib"  will  forever  remain  in  the  mind  of 
those  accepting  the  placer's  propositions,  and  they  will  al- 
ways be  suspicious  for  fear  that  the  placer  is  trying  to  "put 
one  over." 

PLANERS — Rapidly  rotating  blades  mounted  upon  hori- 
zontal shafts  parallel  to  the  latter,  together  with  a  feeding 
mechanism  and  table  upon  which  the  stock  is  laid  in  its  pas- 
sage through  the  machine.  There  are  four  kinds,  surface, 
matchers,  flooring  machines  and  dimension  planers.  Great 
deal  of  refuse  is  made.     Should  have  blower  attachments. 

PLANS — All  plans  on  buildings  about  to  be  erected  should 
be  reviewed  by  an  insurance  expert  before  the  work  is  started 
in  order  that  the  lowest  insurance  rate  may  be  obtained  when 
the  structure  is  complete. 

PLANT — The  outfit  of  machinery,  stock  and  fixtures 
necessary  for  carrying  on  any  kind  of  business. . 


'354  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

PLAN  VIEW — The  drawing  of  any  one  floor  of  a  build- 
ing looking  down  on  it  from  a  point  above  the  drawing. 

PLASTER — A  mixture  of  plaster  of  paris,  sand,  wool  or 
animal  hair.  Plaster  is  made  by  heating  gypsum  sufficient  to 
drive  off  three-fourths  of  all  the  combined  water  which  it 
contains,  and  grinding  finely  the  hydrated  residue. 

PLASTER  BLOCK— Plaster  block,  if  solid  and  not  less 
than  3  inches  thick  or  cinder  plaster  block  can  be  expected- 
to  give  a  very  good  account  of  itself  (as  a  protection  to 
iron  work)  in  very  severe  fires,  comparing  very  favorably,  al- 
though not  as  reliable  as  common  brick  or  good  concrete. 
To  prove  this  fact,  attention  is  called  to  the  excellent  man- 
ner in  which  the  plaster  block  stood  up  in  the  Mansard  in 
the  Equitable  fire,  although  the  intense  heat  melted  brass  in 
many  cases. 

Plaster  Block,  Laboratory  Test  of — A  fire  test  at  an 
average  temperature  of  1700  deg.  F.  on  a  6-inch  plaster  block 
showed  that  the  block  calcined  Yi  inch  after  one-half  hour's 
duration,  increasing  proportionately  until  at  four  hours'  dura- 
tion the  calcination  amounted  to  2^  inches. 

The  building  code  for  New  York  City  will  permit  3-inch 
solid  plaster  block  as  standard  insulation  for  iron  columns, 
2-inch  blocks  for  lower  flanges  of  girders  and  l>^-inch  blocks 
for  lower  flanges  of  beams. 

For  all  shafts,  whether  stair,  vent  or  elevator,  blocks  must 
be  at  least  4  inches  thick. 

PLASTER  BOARDS  are  made  of  gypsum  plaster  with  a 
binder  such  as  wood  pulp,  wood  fibre,  excelsior.  Made  in 
sheets  one-half  to  one  inch  thick,  and  used  extensively  as  a 
fire  retardant  furring.  The  plaster  is  received  in  bags,  mixed 
with  water,  pressed  in  roller  machine  where  the  fibre  is  added, 
cut  into  slabs  with  saw,  air  dried.  Drying  is  usually  done  on 
the  roof  of  the  building  or  a  lattice  frame  enclosure  as  a 
separate  structure.  Large  amounts  of  excelsior  or  other 
fibre  stored  in  premises  is  a  menace.  Construction  of  build- 
ing usually  light  frame.     Not  very  attractive  fire  risks. 

PLASTER  FIGURES— Made  by  moulding  plaster,  wire  or 
excelsior  used  as  a  binder.  They  are  sized  with  glue,  dried 
in  dry  rooms,  shellaced  and  coated  with  paint  or  bronzing 


PLATFORMS  355 

liquid.  Hazards  are  heating  wax  or  glue  by  direct  heat,  dry 
rooms,  excelsior  storage,  painting,  untidy  premises.  Poor 
fire  record. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS— Calcined  and  powdered  gypsum. 

PLATE  GIRDER— A  large  steel  girder  used  to  span  an 
arch  or  opening,  as  for  instance,  over  the  top  of  the  proscen- 
ium in  a  theatre. 

PLATE  PRINTERS— See  Engravers.     See  Etching. 

PLATFORMS — Temporary  overhead  sidewalks  are  some- 
times put  up  in  front  of  buildings  in  course  of  construction 
so  that  pedestrians  can  traverse  the  street,  and  workmen  can 
carry  material  into  the  building.  Sometimes  electrical  ap- 
paratus for  lighting  and  hoists  are  installed  under  these  plat- 
forms. As  all  wiring,  switchboards,  etc.,  are  for  temporary 
use,  they  are  usually  very  carelessly  installed.  In  April, 
1918,  a  severe  fire  occurred  underneath  such  a  platform  at  the 
Pennsylvania  Hotel,  and  was  evidently  the  result  of  defective 
electric  installation  at  switchboard.  The  fire  was  severe 
enough  to  totally  destroy  that  portion  of  the  limestone  front 
under  the  platform  for  a  distance  of  over  150  feet  and 
scorched  buildings  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street.  See 
Course  of  Construction;  see  Builder's  Risk;  see  Spall. 

PLATINUM — A  metal  used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of 
chemical  utensils,  owing  to  its  immunity  to  the  effects  of 
acids,  heat,  etc.     Considered  good  insurance. 

PLINTH — ^The  square,  lowest  member  of  the  base  of  a 
column  or  pier. 

PLUMBAGO — A  mineral  lead  used  in  crucible  manufactur- 
ing. As  this  substance  passes  through  intense  heat  during 
the  manufacturing  process,  it  suffers  practically  no  fire  dam- 
age, and  is  considered  good  insurance. 

PLUMBERS — Usually  carry  only  a  small  amount  of  in- 
surance on  stock,  the  value  being  mostly  in  tools  and  fix- 
tures. May  have  gasoline  torches  or  furnaces,  charcoal  fur- 
naces, forge,  light  metal  working,  painting. 

PLUMBERS'  SUPPLIES  MANUFACTURING— Hazards 
of  wood  and  metal  working,  sandpapering,  dip  staining, 
painting,  lacquering,  varnishing.  Not  an  attractive  class  as 
a  rule. 


356  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

PLUSH — Is  of  different  grades  and  weaves.  Cop  yarn 
(cotton  and  worsted)  is  for  warp  and  woof.  The  plush  piling 
is  silk,  cotton  and  mohair  woven  together  in  one  single 
strand.  The  cop  yarn,  which  furnishes  the  top  and  bottom 
body  fabric,  is  woven  together  with  the  plush  piling  by 
means  of  a  weaving  machine,  and  a  knife  attachment  sepa- 
rates the  top  and  bottom  warps  or  fabrics.  Cop  yarns  come 
in  skeins.  In  this  process  very  little  lint  or  flox  is  produced. 
The  "tigers"  or  rough  combers  of  plush,  however,  produce 
considerable  silk  flox,  which  should  be  cleaned  up  daily.  See 
Silk  Plush. 

POLE-PLATE — A  longitudinal  timber  resting  on  the  ends 
of  the  tie  beams  of  roof. 

POLICY — A  personal  contract  between  the  assured  and 
the  company.  When  the  property  covered  is  sold  or  trans- 
ferred to  a  new  location,  the  policy  does  not  cover  new 
owner  nor  new  address   unless   so   endorsed. 

POLISH  AND  POLISHING  COMPOUNDS  may  contain 
such  inflammable  agents  as  will  make  the  flash  point  of  mix- 
ture 80  deg.  F.  or  lower.  May  include  an  abrasive  material, 
gasoline,  chlorate  of  permanganate,  nitrates,  varnish,  mineral 
and  vegetable  oils. 

POLITICS— The  truth  of  the  statement  that  there  is  a  fire 
hazard  in  politics,  although  but  vaguely  comprehended  by 
the  average  citizen,  comes  oftentimes  with  distinct  empha- 
sis to  those  interested  in  maintaining  municipal  fire  depart- 
ments in  a  state  of  high  efficiency.  Politics  may  interfere 
directly  by  forcing  fire  chiefs  to  fill  their  ranks  with  men 
physically  incapable  and  sometimes  insubordinate,  and  also 
indirectly,  by  tampering  with  the  building  department  in 
such  manner  as  to  allow  the  flagrant  disregard  of  most  need- 
ful precautions. 

POOL  ROOMS— Tables  are  usually  bought  from  the  man- 
ufacturer on  the  installment  plan.  ''Ivories"  must  be  warm 
for  good  playing,  hence,  unless  the  place  is  steam  heated, 
large  pot  stoves  are  usually  employed.  Smoking  hazard. 
Place  may  be  used  as  a  "hang-out." 

POP-CORN  MANUFACTURING— Raw  stock  is  corn, 
molasses  and  glucose.     Work  consists  of  sugar  coating  and 


POTASSIUM  35T 

making  pop-corn  into  balls  and  cakes.  Hazards  are  coke 
and  gas  heated  poppers,  and  confectioners'  stoves.  Portable 
ovens  used  by  bakers,  usually  gas  heated,  should  set  on  at 
least  4  inches  of  brick  on  sheet  iron  (with  air  space)  and  a 
safe  distance  from  all  woodwork,  and  be  vented  to  a  proper 
flue. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT— Composed  chiefly  of  lime, 
alumina  and  silica. 

POST-CARDS — Picture  post-card  making  includes  design- 
ing, embossing,  lithographing,  printing.  Air  brushes  are  used 
for  coloring.     A  poor  fire  record  stock. 

POSTS — Square  or  round  timbers  set  on  ends;  used  for 
corner  supports. 

POT  STOVES — Made  of  an  unlined  iron  casting  varying  in 
thickness  from  ^  to  ^  inch  and  set  on  three  legs.  Many 
of  the  stoves  are  too  small  to  properly  heat  the  entire  floor, 
and  in  consequence  they  are  forced  and  the  fire-pot  kept 
red  hot.  This  condition  causes  the  casting  to  crack.  After 
these  cracks  appear  the  pressure  from  the  heat  and  fuel  with- 
in spreads  the  opening,  which  soon  becomes  large  enough  to 
allow  the  burning  fuel  or  sparks  to  fall  out  on  the  floor. 
Any  stove  having  an  unlined  fire  pot  and  standing  on  three 
legs  should  be  prohibited.  Cracked  fire  pots  should  be  in- 
stantly repaired. 

POTASH— Hydrate  of  potassium. 

POTASSIUM— Obtained  from  potash,  is  very  difficult  to 
keep  because  it  is  continually  uniting  with  the  air,  but  the 
air  may  be  shut  out  by  placing  the  potassium  under  naphtha. 
It  has  a  bluish  white  color  and  is  quite  soft.  If  potassium 
be  left  exposed  to  the  air,  it  tarnishes  at  once,  and  in  a  short 
time  is  all  turned  to  potash,  the  oxygen  of  the  air  uniting 
with  it.  If  you  throw  a  little  piece  of  it  upon  water,  it  steals 
away  the  oxygen  from  the  hydrogen  of  the  water  and  flies 
about  the  surface  burning  with  a  beautiful  violet  flame.  The 
flame  is  the  hydrogen  set  free  by  the  union  of  the  potassium 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  water. — Hooker's   Chemistry. 

POTASSIUM  CHLORATE— In  the  dyeing  of  fabrics 
where  potassium  chlorate  is  used  as  the  oxidizing  agent, 
there  is  considerable  danger  of  fire  due  to  the  rapid  oxidation 


358  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  the  aniline  dye  and  the  chlorate.  Not  inflammable,  but 
its  presence  increases  the  intensity  of  fire  by  the  evolution 
of  oxygen.     See  Barium  Chlorate. 

POTASSIUM  CYANIDE— A  heavy  white  solid;  not  haz- 
ardous. 

POTASSIUM  METALLIC— See  Metallic  Potassium. 

POTASSIUM,  NITRATE— White  crystalline  salt,  classed 
as  non-inflammable  and  not  dangerous,  but  its  presence  in- 
creases the  intensity  of  fire  by   the  evolution  of  oxygen. 

POTASSIUM  PERMANGANATE— A  purplish  crystalline 
salt  rich  in  oxygen.  May  cause  fire  v^hen  mixed  with  com- 
bustible material. 

POTASSIUM   PEROXIDE— See  Sodium  Peroxide. 

POTASSIUM  PICRATE— Mixed  with  water,  is  used  as 
substitute  for  yellow  ink  in  coloring  maps. 

POTATO  CHIPS— Use  power  machines  for  paring  and 
slicing.  Cook  the  slices  in  grease  by  direct  or  indirect  fire. 
Greasy  risks.     A  poor  fire  record  class. 

POTATO  IVORY— Artificial  ivory  made  from  good  pota- 
toes, washed  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  boiled  in  same  so- 
lution. They  become  solid,  then  are  washed  and  slowly 
dried. 

POTATO  SPIRITS— See  Amyl  Hydrate. 

POWER  HOUSES  are  generally  F.  P.  construction  with 
approved  electrical  equipment.  Considered  desirable  insur- 
ance. 

PREFERRED  BUSINESS  (so-called)  is  insurance  on 
risks  of  minimum  hazard  or  maximum  protection,  such  as 
dwellings,  fireproof  buildings  or  sprinklered  risks. 

PREMIUMS — Companies  must  accumulate  sufficient  re- 
serve from  premiums  collected  each  year  to  pay  for  large 
losses  occurring  from  conflagrations  which,  as  a  rule,  occur 
every  few  years.     See  Earned  Premium. 

PRESERVATION  OF  TIMBER— Several  methods  are 
used  to  artificially  preserve  timber  from  decay.  The  sap 
may  be  expelled  by  hydraulic  pressure  and  replaced  by 
chemical  fluid,  or  the  timber  may  be  saturated  with  some 
chemical  fluid  which  will  combine  or  act  upon  the  albumen 
and  prevent  decay.     See  Wood  Preservatives. 


PRESSURE  ^  359 

PRESERVING  AND  FIREPROOFING  Natural  and  Ar- 
tificial Foliage.     See  Artificial  Flowers  and  Feathers. 

PRESSING  IRONS  (electric)  should  be  made  foolproof. 
The  temperature  of  a  flat  iron  for  safe  and  satisfactory  use 
is  from  400  to  600  deg.  F.  This  temperature  is  not  danger- 
ous, but  when  the  irons  as  now  designed  are  allowed  to  re- 
main with  the  current  on  continuously,  then  the  temperature 
rapidly  increases  to  1200  to  1400  degrees,  or  even  1800  degrees 
in  some  instances,  and  the  iron  may  reach  red  heat.  The 
hazard  may  be  overcome  by  means  of  a  new  device  called  a 
thermostatic  switch  placed  in  the  iron,  and  which  automat- 
ically cuts  oflF  the  current  when  the  temperature  exceeds  a 
predetermined  range,  usually  400  to  600  degrees.  See  N.  F. 
P.  A.  Bulletin  for  details. 

PRESSING  TABLES  in  tailor  shops.  The  boards  and 
bucks  should  be  covered  with  metal.  Also  floors  under  and 
2  feet  at  sides  of  tables.  Many  fires  are  caused  by  hot  irons 
resting  on  woodwork. 

PRESSURE — How  to  figure  pressure  on  the  top  line  of  a 
sprinkler  equipment.  Take  a  building  seven  stories  high,  or 
80  feet  above  the  grade,  with  a  pressure  of  40  pounds  at  the 
main  hydrant.  Multiply  .434,  which  is  the  pressure  for  each 
foot  of  elevation,  times  height  (80  feet),  which  equals  34.7 
pounds.  Deduct  34.7  pounds  from  the  pressure  at  the  main 
(40  pounds)  which  leaves  a  working  pressure  of  only  5.30 
pounds  on  the  top  line  of  sprinklers.  Note. — A  column  of 
water  12  inches  high  having  an  area  of  one  square  inch 
weighs  .434  pounds.     See  Water  Pressure. 

Pressure — Assume  a  gravity  tank  is  12  feet  high  and 
elevated  20  feet  abovfe  the  roof  and  sprinkler  heads  are  one 
foot  below  the  roof.  Take  12  feet  plus  20  feet  plus  1  foot 
equaling  33  feet  x  .434  equals  14.19  pounds  pressure  on  high- 
est line  of  sprinklers.  Note. — The  combined  pressures  of 
gravity  tank  and  pressure  tank  cannot  be  added,  for  in  case 
of  fire,  the  water  will  first  be  used  from  the  pressure  tank 
until  the  pressure  is  below  that  from  the  gravity  tank,  then 
the  water  will  flow  from  the  gravity  tank. 

Assume,  in  the  case  of  a  pressure  tank,  that  it  is  eight  feet 
above  the  roof  and  sprinkler  heads  one  foot  below  the  roof. 


^360  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Add  8  feet  plus  1  foot  equals  9  feet  x  .434  equals  3.9  pounds 
pressure,  plus  the  pressure  showing  on  gauge  on  pressure 
tanks,  say  75  pounds,  equals  78.9  pounds  pressure  on  highest 
line. 

PRESSURE  TANKS  of  sprinkler  systems,  steel  or 
wrought  iron,  are  two-thirds  full  of  water  and  one-third  of 
air.  A  gauge  to  show  height  of  water  in  tank  is  placed  at 
end  of  tank.  75  pounds  pressure  is  usually  maintained. 
Pressure  tanks  operate  prior  to  gravity  tanks  when  the  water 
flows  through  sprinkler  pipes.  The  pressure  of  water  in  the 
pressure  tank  holds  shut  the  check  valve  on  riser  to  gravity 
tank,  and  when  the  water  or  pressure  is  released,  the  water 
from  gravity  tank  starts  to  flow. 

To  ascertain  if  water  is  at  proper  level  in  pressure  tank, 
first  close  pet  cock  at  the  bottom,  then  open  valve  at  top  of 
glass  gauge,  then  open  valve  at  lower  end  of  glass  gauge 
and  the  water  will  rise.  After  finding  water  level,  close  lower 
valve  in  glass  gauge  first,  then  close  valve  at  top  of  glass 
gauge  and  open  pet  cock  at  the  bottom.     See  Sprinklers. 

PREST-O-LITE  (acetylene  gas)— A  fire  in  one  of  these 
plants  demonstrated  that  acetylene  gas  itself  will  explode  if 
compressed  with  air.  Excessive  heat  and  high  pressure  will 
also  cause  explosion. 

PREVAILING  WIND  record  for  35  years  shows  N.  Y. 
City  to  be  on  average  W — N.W.     See  Wind. 

PRIME — To  put  on  the  first  coat  of  paint.  In  sash,  door 
and  blind  factories  benzine  thinned  paint  is  generally  used. 

PRINTING  HAZARDS— Composing,  ink  mixing,  press 
work,  wrapping,  benzine  or  a  substitute  for  cleaning  presses, 
oily  waste,  waste  paper,  oily  floors.  •  Job  presses  are  used 
only  for  small  work.  In  this  type  of  press,  the  type  bed 
and  tympan  (sheet  holder)  come  together  on  a  vertical  plane. 
Metal  should  be  placed  under  all  presses  to  prevent  floors 
from  becoming  oil  soaked.  The  fire  record  is  usually  good. 
See  Cylinder  Press. 

PRINTING  INK  is  generally  made  of  boiled  linseed  or  nut 
oil,  and  mixed  with  lamp-black  and  soap.  Write  class  with 
caution. 

PRINTERS'  ROLLERS  are  made  of  glue,  glycerine  and 


PRIVATE   FIRE   PLANTS  361 

molasses  on  a  steel  core.  There  are  two  kinds,  one  for  sum- 
mer and  one  for  cold  weather  use.  The  former  is  made  of 
a  harder  mixture  to  withstand  heat. 

PRISM  LIGHTS — Used  principally  on  extension  skylights 
in  order  to  lighten  dark  locations.  In  New  York  City  they 
are  classed  as  thin  glass  unless  the  part  in  the  valley  is  one- 
half  inch  thick,  or  unless  glasses  are  not  more  than  four 
inches  by  four  inches  on  metal  frame,  in  which  case  glass 
must  be  one-half  inch  thick  over  all  and  one-fourth  inch 
thick  in  valley.     See  Sun's  Rays. 

PRIVATE  DWELLINGS— See  Dwellings;  also  F.  P. 
Dwellings. 

PRIVATE  FIRE  PLANTS— A  steam  fire  pump  capable 
of  furnishing  at  least  two  good  fire  streams,  should  be  pro- 
vided and  connected  directly  to  standpipe  system,  with  gate 
and  check  valves  in  such  connection,  taking  suction  prefer- 
ably from  city  main  through  a  connection  not  less  than  4 
inches  in  diameter,  or  in  the  event  or  this  supply  not  being 
available,  the  pump  to  take  suction  from  a  reservoir  of  say 
20,000  gallons  capacity,  with  a  possibility  of  some  variation 
according  to  the  special  case  under  treatment,  such  reser- 
voir to  be  filled  by  connection  to  the  city  main,  automatically 
controlled  by  float  valve. 

The  pump  and  boilers  should  be  cut  off  from  the  building 
by  preferably  a  fire  wall,  in  which  case  the  sill  at  the  door- 
way should  be  at  least  two  feet  above  the  basement  level,  or 
if  this  is  not  possible,  a  dwarf  wall  not  less  than  two  feet 
high  should  be  provided,  which  would  prevent  flooding  the 
pump  and  boiler  room  in  the  event  of  the  water  which  finds 
its  way  into  the  basement  i"eaching  the  depth  indicated.  A 
sufficient  quantity  of  steam  to  run  the  pump  should  be  kept 
up  at  all  times  and  an  engineer  on  duty  night  and  day. 

A  signal  system  with  a  station  on  each  floor  with  gong 
and  indicator  in  the  engine  room  for  the  purpose  of  notify- 
ing the  engineer  of  the  location  of  a  fire  and  when  the  pump 
should  be  put  in  operation. 

A  watchman  should  patrol  the  building  at  night,  and  dur- 
ing the  day,  on  Sundays  and  holidays,  making  hourly  rounds, 
a  record  of  the  rounds  being  made   on  an   approved  watch 


362  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

clock,  and  stations  connected  therewith  to  be  located  on  each 
floor  and  in  such  manner  as  to  require  the  watchman  to  patrol 
practically  all  parts  of  the  building. 

PRIVATE  WATER  WORKS— See  Water  Works. 

PRODUCER  GAS  PLANTS— The  producer  and  all  appa- 
ratus connected  therewith  should  be  safely  set  on  a  solid 
foundation,  and  all  platforms  used  in  connection  with  gen- 
erators should  be  of  incombustible  material.  For  detailed  de- 
scription, see  National  Board  Standards.  Producer  gas  is 
made  by  partial  or  incomplete  combustion  of  coal  in  the 
presence  of  an  air  supply  which  is  regulated,  and  leaves  no 
combustible  residue. 

PROFIT  INSURANCE— Insurance  on  profits  may  be 
written  under  two  or  more  forms,  which  may  be  principally 
described  as  "per  diem"  and  "per  cent."  Per  diem  profit 
insurance  is  generally  used  where  only  a  very  small  stock 
of  merchandise  is  carried.  Percentage  profit  insurance  in  this 
case  is  not  acceptable  to  most  companies  as  can  be  readily 
seen  from  the  following  example:  A  cafe  has  a  $1,000  stock; 
50  per  cent,  profit  would  be  $500.  If  fire  ensues  with  a  total 
loss  the  companies  must  pay  $500,  whereas  if  policy  was  writ- 
ten under  the  "per  diem"  form  with  an  amount  of  $500  at 
$20  a  day  profit  it  would  be  25  days  before  the  total  amount 
of  insurance  would  be  used  up  and  the  chances  are  that  the 
premises  would  be  in  working  order  before  the  2S-day  period 
terminated. 

Per  cent,  profit  insurance  is  the  most  commonly  used  and 
should  always  follow  the  stock  adjustment.  Extreme  care 
should  be  exercised  in  writing  this  class  of  insurance  as  many 
brokers'  forms  read  "company  shall  be  liable  for  a  loss  of 
profits  equal  to,  say,  20  per  cent,  or  25  per  cent,  of  the 
value  of  merchandise  insured.  With  this  form  the  stock 
may  only  suffer  a  1  per  cent,  fire  loss  and  yet  the  company 
would  be  obliged  to  pay  a  20  per  cent,  or  25  per  cent,  profit 
loss.  The  form  should  read  that  the  loss  would  be  a  certain 
per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  damaged  merchandise  (not  the 
value  of  the  merchandise  insured) ;  in  other  words,  the  profit 
loss  should  follow  the  stock  adjustment.  Only  competent 
underwriters  should  accept  profit  insurance.     The  following 


/ 
PROFITS  OP  A  LEASE  ^ 

will  illustrate  the  reason  why  large  concerns  carry  per- 
centage profit  insurance.  A  large  woolen  firm  has  stock  of 
piece  goods  and  are  well  stocked  up,  their  fall  stock  being 
all  in.  A  fire  breaks  out  and  they  sustain  a  total  loss.  Their 
own  mill  cannot  fill  orders  for  three  months,  therefore  they 
are  obliged  to  go  to  other  mills  to  supply  them.  In  order  to 
protect  themselves  against  such  a  contingency,  they  carry 
percentage  profit  insurance  so  that  they  will  receive  their 
regular  profit  just  as  if  nothing  had  happened. 

PROFITS  OF  A  LEASE— This  is  considered  good  insur* 
ance  if  the  conditions  of  the  proposed  insurance  are 
thoroughly  understood  by  the  underwriter.  The  amount  of 
insurance  is  determined  in  the  following  manner.  Assume 
that  ten  years  ago,  a  very  old  building  was  leased  for  a 
term  of  years  at  $10,000  per  year.  The  building  is  remodeled 
and  the  lease  is  now  worth  $20,000  a  year.  Should  the 
building  burn,  the  lessee  may  be  forced  to  pay  $20,000  a 
year  for  a  similar  lease  in  the  vicinity.  Therefore  he  se- 
cures a  "profit  of  lease"  policy  for  the  difference  for  which 
he  paid  $10,000  and  the  present  value,  $20,000,  to  protect 
his  interest  for  each  year  the  lease  has  to  run.  Again  he 
may  have  leased  the  building,  and  sublet  the  property  for  a 
much  larger  sum;  in  which  event,  the  amount  of  difference 
between  what  he  pays  and  what  he  receives  is  his  profit. 

PROHIBITED  RISK— One  of  a  class  which  has  shown 
such  an  unprofitable  loss  ratio  that  a  company  will  not 
write  any  insurance  therein  or  thereon. 

PROOF  OF  LOSS  is  the  sworn  statement  of  the  insured 
to  the  insurer,  setting  forth  the  time  fire  occurred,  the 
amount  of  loss  and  damage  sustained,  information  concern- 
ing ownership,  the  cash  value  of  property  covered,  the  names 
of  other  companies  interested,  and  the  amount  of  their  pol- 
icies, the  total  amount  of  insurance  carried  and  the  oc- 
cupancy of  building  at  the  time  of  fire.     See  Adjuster. 

PROOF  SPIRITS— See  Grain  Alcohol. 

PROPRIETARY  MEDICINES  (liquid-  or  tablet  form)— 
Use  stone  and  iron  mills,  chasers,  pulverizers,  dry  rooms, 
presses  for  tablets.  May  use  in  the  manufacture  such  things 
as  nitroglycerine,  carbon  bisulphide,  sulphuric  ether,  turpen- 


\ 

364  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

tine,  essential  oils,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  camphor,  nitric, 
hydrochloric  and  glacial  acetic  acids,  lamp-black,  powdered 
charcoal,  denatured  and  grain  alcohol.  Sometimes  use  port- 
able oil  or  gas  stoves. 

PRO  RATA — Used  when  a  policy  is  cancelled  by  other 
than  the  assured  (unless  rewritten),  in  which  case  the  pre- 
mium retained  is  figured  in  the  proportion  to  the  time  the 
policy  has  been  in  force.     See  Short  Rate. 

PROTECTED  RISKS— Risks  under  fire  department  pro- 
tection.    See  Accessibility;  also  Topography. 

PROVISION  DEALERS— Work  consists  of  meat  wash- 
ing and  trimming,  sausage  meat  grinding  and  stuffing,  cook- 
ing, lard  rendering  and  pressitig,  smokehouses,  refrigerat- 
ing, pickling,  coopering.  May  have  small  carpenter  and  paint 
shop  in  large  plants,  also  stable  and  garage.  See  Smoke 
Houses. 

PRUSSIAN  BLUE— Made  of  sulphate  of  iron  and  yellow 
prussiate  of  soda.  Chlorate  of  potash  is  used  for  oxidizing. 
See  Soluble  Blue. 

PRUSSIC  ACID  (hydrocyanic)— Composed  of  hydrogen, 
carbon  and  nitrogen.     See  Hydrocyanic  Acid. 

PUBLIC  HALLS— See  Halls. 

PUDDLING  FURNACE— Used  to  convert  cast-iron  into 
wrought-iron. 

PUG  MILL — A  mixing  machine  used  chiefly  in  clay  and 
paint  factories.  Used  for  tempering  brick  clay  in  pot- 
teries. 

PULLEYS  (wood)  in  an  elevator  head  may  cause  fire 
when  the  elevator  becomes  choked.  Experiments  prove  that 
when  a  choke-up  occurs,  the  friction  of  the  wood  pulley  on 
a  canvas  or  rubber  belt  will  produce  actual  fire  (not  merely 
excessive  heat  or  smoke)  in  from  six  and  one-half  to 
twenty  minutes,  depending  principally  on  the  kind  of  belt 
used,  the  size  of  the  pulley,  and  the  height  of  the  elevator. 
Iron  pulleys  should  always  be  used.  See  Strut  Boards,  also 
Elevators. 

PUMICE  STONE— A  volcanic  product.  Used  as  an  abra- 
sive.    Considered  good  insurance. 

PUMPS — If  a   pump    shows   43   lbs.   of   pressure   it   is   the 


PYRENE  365 

equivalent  to  head  of  100  feet,  in  other  words,  same  as  a 
gravity  tank  100  feet  elevation. 

On  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  pumps  should  be  tried 
to  see  if  in  proper  working  order.  Examine  the  pump  suc- 
tion pipe  to  see  if  strainer  is  clear  and  free  from  refuse  or 
otherwise  obstructed.     See  Fire  Pumps. 

PURCHASE  MONEY  MORTGAGE— Where  a  party 
purchases  a  business  and  pays  the  former  owner  a  cer- 
tain amount  each  month.  The  former  owner  retains  a  mort- 
gage until  the  full  amount  is  liquidated.  This  transaction  is 
considered  O,  K.  by  underwriters.  The  buyer  is  consti- 
tuted the  sole  owner.  Loss  is  usually  made  payable  to  the 
mortgagee.     (Inspect  and  get  trade  report.) 

PURLINS — The  horizontal  pieces  placed  on  rafters  for 
supporting  the  roof  covering.     See  Piers. 

PUTTING-OUT  MACHINE  (in  leather  works)— A  ma- 
chine which  squeezes  the  water  out  of  the  skin. 

PUTTY — Linseed  oil  and  whiting.  Mixed  and  heated  in 
steam  kettles  with  agitators.  Rapid  motion  mills  for  grind- 
ing. Barrel  painting,  soldering  irons  for  can  tops,  linseed  oil 
storage  and  oily  rags  and  floors  are  principal  hazards.  Glue 
putty  is  made  from  whiting  and  hot,  melted  glue. 

PYRALIN— Celluloid. 

PYRENE — A  secret  liquefied  gas,  said  to  consist  of  carbon 
tetra-chloride  charged  with  carbonic  acid  gas  to  the  point 
of  saturation,  with  a  small  amount  of  ammonia  gas  and 
hydrochloric  acid.  Pyrene  extinguishers  are  recommended 
for  garages,  car  barns,  chemical  plants,  calcium  carbide  fires, 
paints,  oils  and  varnishes  but  not  for  general  factories'  pur- 
poses, department  stores,  etc.  It  vaporizes  and  forms  a  gas 
blanket  excluding  the  oxygen  from  the  fire.  , 

PYRIDINE— Used  for  denaturing  alcohol. 

PYRITES— Or  natural  disulphide  of  iron.  A  dense,  hard 
mineral  of  crystalline  structure  and  pale  yellow  color.  There 
is  some  doubt  as  to  whether  they  are  subject  to  spontaneous 
combustion,  although  several  cases  are  on  record  of  fires 
starting  in  the  holds  of  ships  where  only  this  cargo  was 
stored.  The  pyrites  used  in  manufacturing  sulphuric  acid 
usually  contain  about  48  per  cent,   of  sulphur,  40  per  rent. 


366  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  iron  and  the  balance  silica,  copper  and  arsenic.  It  is 
burned  in  a  kiln  which  is  kept  supplied  with  fresh  quanti- 
ties of  ore. 

PYRO — A  prefix  signifying  fire.  Also  abbreviation  for 
Pyrogallic  Acid. 

PYROBAR  PARTITION  BLOCKS— Hollow;  are  made 
of  gypsum  (plaster  of  paris)  and  wood  fibre.  Approved  for 
partitions  when  3  inches  thick. 

PYRODENE— A  so-called  fireproof  paint. 

PYROGRAPHIC  OUTFIT— Consists  of  a  bottle  of  ben- 
zine, a  rubber  tube  connecting  to  a  needle  and  a  small  bulb 
which  is  squeezed  by  hand  the  same  as  an  atomizer.  The 
needle  is  first  heated,  and  then  the  benzine  vapor  pumped 
to  the  needle  to  keep  it  hot  while  burning  the  wood.  Flem- 
ish white  wood  is  mostly  used. 

PYROLIGENEOUS  ACID— The  crude  acid  obtained  by 
the  destructive  distillation  of  wood.  Has  smoky  odor,  not 
inflammable. 

PYROMANIAC — A  fiend  who  sets  buildings  on  fire,  usu- 
ally only  to  see  them  burn,  or  watch  the  fire  engines  run  to 
the  fire.     See  Incendiarism. 

PYRONONE— A  high  explosive. 

PYROPHORES — Substances  glowing  and  igniting  spon- 
taneously. 

PYROXYLIN — Solutions  of  pyroxylin,  nitrocellulose,  or 
soluble  cotton  dissolved  in  amyl  acetate  or  other  solvents. 
See  Celluloid. 


QUARRIES  (slate) — Hazards  of  large  frame  areas  and  dry 
kilns.  Moral  hazard  is  most  important.  The  natural  sup- 
ply of  slate  may  be  exhausted  and  render  the  plant  useless, 
or  slate  may  be  of  poor  quality  which  would  cause  a  great 
depreciation  in  the  value  of  the  quarry.  Cost  of  transpor- 
tation to  markets  may  be  so  high  that  the  plant  cannot  oper- 
ate at  a  profit. 

QUEBRACHO — An  extract  from  wood  bark,  used  in  tan- 
ning.    Will  melt,  but  will  not  burn. 

QUEEN  POST  OR  QUEEN  ROD— See  King  Post. 

QUICK  LIME— See  Lime. 

QUICKSILVER — Commercial  name  for  mercury. 

QUILL  TOOTH  PICKS— Work  consists  of  sterilizing  and 
repacking  natural  and  artificial  quills  or  straws  and  covers 
for  same.  Use  motor-driven  machines  for  making  covers, 
and  gas  or  steam  for  heating  water. 

QUINOLENE— An  oily  inflammable  liquid. 

QUOIN  STONES— Stones  placed  along  the  vertical 
angles  of  a  building. 


367 


R 

RABBET  OR  RABBITT— A  groove  along  the  edge  of  a 
board  or  a  door  frame,  as  for  instance,  fire  doors  of  swing- 
ing type  must  be  rabbetted. 

RACING  STABLES  have  a  poor  fire  record.  Belmont 
Park,  Long  Island,  burned  twice  in  one  month  in  1917.  See 
Stables. 

RACKING  OFF  (in  breweries)— This  means  drawing  the 
beer  into  kegs.  A  filling  machine  and  liquid  gas  tank  are 
used  for  pressure.     See  Breweries. 

RADIANT  METAL  POLISH— Flash  point  200  deg.  F. 
Classed  non-volatile. 

RAFFIA— A  grass  fibre. 

RAFTERS — Those  timbers  which  form  the  inclined  sides 
of  a  roof  and  carry  a  roof  covering.  Joists  to  which  roof 
boards  are  nailed. 

RAGOSINE  OIL— A  mineral  oil.     Flash,  380  deg.  F. 

RAG  STOCKS — This  business  has  a  very  poor  fire  record, 
especially  where  sorting  or  baling  is  done.  Open  gas  jets 
over  sorting  tables,  smoking  and  coal  stove  heat  are  poor 
features.  Generally  occupy  basement  with  poor  class  of 
help.      See    Clippings. 

RAILROAD  CAR  HOUSES— A  standard  Railway  Car 
Storage  House  should  be  so  constructed  and  protected  that 
it  may  not  contribute  in  any  manner  toward  the  spread  of 
fire  therein,  and  contribute  only,  in  case  of  fire,  not  to  exceed 
sectional  losses  of  the  structure.  One  single  division  should 
not  exceed  dimensions  to  expose  to  any  one  fire  a  greater 
number  of  cars  therein  than  would  represent  a  valuation  of 
$200,000  of  combustible  rolling  stock,  or  a  total  interior 
trackage  of  not  more  than  1,800  feet. 

368 


RAILROADS  369 

Floors — To  be  of  brick,  concrete,  stone,  cinders  or  earth. 

Pits — To  have  brick,  stone  or  concrete  retaining  walls  or 
piers;  brick  or  concrete  floors;  steps  of  stone,  concrete  or 
iron;  the  rails  to  be  supported  on  brick,  concrete,  stone  or 
wood  stringers  exposed  on  one  side  only,  and  to  have  not 
more  than  four-track  sections  communicating. 

Tracks — To  run  clear  from  building,  without  break  or 
transfer  table.  To  be  terminated  by  suitable  bumpers,  so 
that  there  will  be  a  clear  space  of  not  less  than  three  feet 
between  bumpers  and  wall  of  building.  Special  track  work 
in  front  of  building  to  be  provided  with  guard  rails,  where 
necessary. 

Track  Doors — Track  doors  to  be  in  pairs,  to  be  arranged 
so  that  whether  open  or  closed  any  door  of  one  pair  will 
not  interfere  with  the  operation  of  any  other  pair.  When 
within  10  feet  of  cut-off  walls,  to  be  constructed  and  hung 
as  for  a  standard  swinging  fire  door.  Approved  metal  roller 
doors  may  also  be  used. 

Hazards — All  electrical,  heating,  power  and  occupancy 
hazards  to  be  installed  and  maintained,  and  where  necessary 
to  be  cut  off,  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  require- 
ments of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

RAILROADS: — Protection  along  railroads  to  prevent 
brush  or  forest  fires.  Along  railroads,  fire  safety  strips  are 
employed.  A  strip  about  25  feet  on  each  side  of  the  track  is 
cleared  of  all  material.  Back  of  this  there  is  a  strip  of  woods 
from  50  to  60  feet  wide,  on  which  the  timber  is  left  but 
from  which  all  the  underbrush  on  the  ground  is  removed. 
Beyond  this  wooded  strip  is  a  ditch  from  5  to  6  feet  wide 
and  a  foot  or  more  deep.  The  dirt  from  the  ditch  is  thrown 
back  toward  the  railroad  and  forms  a  small  embankment. 
Cross  ditches  are  dug  through  the  wooded  strip  about  100 
yards  apart.  After  the  material  on  the  ground  is  cleared 
each  year  there  is  nothing  else  to  be  done  and  it  is  seldom 
that  a  fire  escapes.  By  this  device,  and  by  strict  enforce- 
ment of  laws  governing  the  use  of  spark  arresters,  etc.,  the 
number  of  fires  started  by  railroads  is  kept  down  to  a  sur- 
prisingly small  total.     See  Forest  Fires. 

RAILROAD  TERMINALS— Usually  large  area  of  frame 


37a  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

construction.  Should  have  plenty  of  fire  pails  and  extin- 
guishers and  a  good  standpipe  system.  In  unheated  por- 
tions, the  water  in  standpipes  is  apt  to  freeze.  Oftentimes 
the  standpipes  are  drained  at  the  beginning  of  winter  and 
supply  must  then  be  turned  on  in  engine-room  or  pumping- 
station,  when  there  is  a  fire.  In  transporting  perishable 
freight,  such  as  potatoes,  in  box  cars  during  cold  weather, 
there  is  grave  danger  of  freezing.  Instances  are  known 
where  the  burlap  and  straw  covering  was  deemed  insufficient 
and  a  coal  fire  built  in  the  car,  with  the  result  that  the  car 
and  the  freight  were  destroyed.     A  poor  fire  record  class. 

RAINES  LAW  HOTELS— Hotels  only  in  the  eye  of  the 
law  as  the  furnished  rooms  above  the  saloon  are  seldom,  if 
ever,  used.     Always  inspect  this  class. 

RAIN-LOOP — A  loop  made  in  electric  wiring  just  before 
it  enters  the  wall  of  a  building,  to  prevent  rain  from  follow- 
ing in. 

RAISING  PLATE— See  Wall  Plate. 

RAMIE — A  fibre  from  an  oriental  plant  of  the  nettle  fam- 
ily, used  instead  of  cotton  for  braids,  trimmings,  napery,  etc. 
Similar  in  appearance  to  thrown  silk  and  woven  the  same 
as  straw  braid  in  a  straw  hat  factory,  on  a  **ramie"  machine, 
then  sized  with  glue  or  starch,  dried  over  steam  coils  and 
smoothed  in  steam  or  gas-heated  roller. 

RANDOM  STONES— Stones  thrown  into  the  water  to 
form  a  foundation  or  retainer  wall. 

RANGES  (large)  should  have  a  hood  to  confine,  and  ven- 
tilating duct  to  carry  off  grease-laden  vapors  or  smoke.  A 
fan  draws  the  vapors  to  a  stack  or  flue.  These  hoods  and 
vents  become  coated  on  the  inside  with  grease,  which  takes 
fire  from  the  stove.  Steam  jets  are  sometimes  installed  un- 
der hood  so  that  if  grease  is  ignited  a  valve  on  steam  pipe 
can  be  turned  on  to  smother  the  fire.    See  Gas  Ranges. 

RANGES  (Small) — Should  be  set  on  one  course  of 
brick  on  sheet-iron.  Large  ranges  should  be  set  on  fireproof 
floors.  If  the  floors  are  combustible,  ranges  must  be  set  on 
a  foundation  consisting  of  two  courses  of  four-inch  terra 
cotta  or  three  courses  of  brick,  top  course  pigeon-holed,  on 
metal.     Foundation  to  extend   12  inches   in  front   (except  if 


RANGES 


371 


solid  fuel  is  used,  in  which  case  24  inches  are  required),  also 
12  inches  sides  and  rear.  If  ranges  have  four-inch  legs,  only 
one  course  of  terra  cotta  needed.  If  18-inch  clear  space 
metal  shield  only  is  required.     See   Gas   Ranges. 


1^ 


^oM  he  Sef  *^^&  O^  /jre^r€>o///<>or^.  ff^oorj  are, 
(ontBusf/h/&,^an^>s  /Tfusf  oe  ser  or?  rz  /ci^^e^aihofv  c»w/s//^ 
of  ftvo  C^i/r^eJ  of  terra  c^i^a.  (eacA  -f'^S^/c^fve//  /aJe/ )/? 

Copyright.    1916.   G.   A.   Ins.   Co. 


372  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

RAPE  OIL — An  oil  resembling  olive  oil,  pressed  from 
rape  seed.     Flash,  440  to  580  dcg.  F.     Used  at  altars, 

RATES — The  object  sought  in  fixing  fire  insurance  rates 
in  New  York  City.— By  W.  O.  Robb. 

1.  To  provide  such  a  premium  income  from  the  aggregate 
of  fire  underwriting  operations  in  the'  metropolitan  district 
as  will  in  average  years  be  sufficient  to  pay  the  losses  in- 
curred in  that  district  plus  the  specific  expense  and  a  pro 
rata  share  of  the  general  expense  of  doing  business,  and  yet 
leave  margin  enough  both  to  pay  a  fair  profit  on  the  capital 
and  surplus  invested  and  to  provide  for  the  accumulation  of 
a  reserve  against  extraordinary .  or  conflagration  losses  not 
occurring  in  average  years  and  not  to  be  treated  as  exclu- 
sively a  metropolitan  district  contingency. 

2.  To  so  apportion  this  levy,  or  insurance  tax,  among  the 
various  classes  of  risks  as  to  make  each  class  come  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  payment  of  its  own  losses  and  the  con- 
tribution of  its  proper  proportion  toward  the  expense,  profit 
and  reserve  accounts. 

3.  So  to  distinguish  among  individual  risks  of  the  same 
class  that  proper  credit  will  be  given  or  proper  charge  made 
for  all  variations  above  or  below  the  standard  of  the  aver- 
age risk  of  the  class,  according  to  best  judgment  of  under- 
writers and  the  fire  protection  experts;  that  every  property, 
owner  can  be  made  to  see  just  what  it  is  that  operates,  and 
how  far  it  operates,  to  make  his  insurance  cost  more  or  less 
than  his  neighbor's  in  the  same  business,  so  that  the  sus- 
picion as  well  as  the  actual  practice  of  unfair  discrimination 
may  be  removed,  and  that  every  proper  kind  of  pressure 
and  inducement  may  be  brought  to  bear  in  the  direction  of 
the  improvement  of  the  fire  hazard  and  the  reduction  of  the 
fire  waste.     See  Schedules. 

RATS,  FIRES  CAUSED  BY— The  following  is  quoted 
from  a  bulletin  of  the  United  States  Biological  Survey: 

It  is  generally  believed  that  rats  and  mice  cause  fires  by 
igniting  matches  with  their  teeth.  The  testimony  of  chiefs 
of  fire  departments  and  adjusters  of  fire  insurance  claims 
confirms  this  belief,  and  many  specific  instances  have, been 
given  of  fires  caused  in  this  way.     A  fire,  which  resulted  in 


RATS,    FIRES    CAUSED    BY  373 

the  partial  destruction  of  the  Sultan's  place  at  Scutari,  Asia 
Minor,  in  1856,  had  such  an  origin.  During  1907  the  fire  de- 
partment of  Washington,  D.  C,  gave  a  similar  explanation 
of  a  fire  which  seriously  damaged  a  large  store  and  its  con- 
tents. 

Manufacturers  of  matches  often  dip  them  in  paraffine  to 
protect  the  phosphorus.  The  parafiine  is  attractive  to  rats 
and  mice,  and  the  matches  are  often  carried  under  floors 
and  behind  partitions,  where  they  are  subsequently  gnawed. 
Paper  and  other  combustible  materials  collected  by  the  ani- 
mals add  to  the  danger  of  fires.  Moreover,  since  the  heads 
of  phosphorus  matches  contain  from  14  to  17  per  cent,  of 
phosphorus,  it  does  not  require  actual  gnawing  by  rats  to 
ignite  them.  Hot  weather,  excessive  heat  from  furnaces,  or 
friction  of  any  kind  may  effect  the  same  result  as  the  teeth 
of  rats,  when  the  matches  have  been  carried  into  a  nest  made 
of  combustibles. 

Fire§  in  mills  and  warehouses  have  been  traced  to  the 
spontaneous  ignition  of  oily  and  fatty  rags  or  waste  carried 
under  floors  by  rats  or  mice.  Cotton  mills  are  said  to  be  pe- 
culiarly subject  to  fires  from  this  cause. 

Phillip's  Warehouse,  Church  Street,  London,  was  twice  set 
on  fire  and  damaged  by  reason  of  gas  leaks.  In  both  in- 
stances the  lead  gas  pipe  leading  to  the  meter  had  been  eaten 
through  by  rats,  and  the  escaping  gas  was  accidentally  set 
on  fire  by  workmen  who  were  searching  for  a  leak.  In  a 
similar  instance  of  gas  leak  caused  by  rats  in  a  London  pri- 
vate residence,  no  fire  resulted,  but  a  sleeping  family  of  four 
persons  narrowly  escaped  death  by  asphyxiation.  An  in- 
spector in  the  employ  of  the  Washington  Gas  Light  Com- 
pany recounts  a  similar  instance  in  that  city  where  pipes 
were  gnawed  by  rats,  but  fortunately  it  occurred  when  the 
inmates  were  awake. 

The  most  common  way  in  which  rats  cause  fire  is  by 
gnawing  away  the  insulating  covering  from  wires  used  in 
electric  lighting,  where  the  wires  pass  under  floors  or  in- 
side of  partitions.  The  insulating  materials  are  used  for 
nests,  which  rats  often  build  of  combustibles  placed  in  con- 
tact with  the  naked  wires.    Insurancecompanies,  a  few  years 


374  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

ago,  estimated  the  fire  loss  of  the  United  States  due  to  de- 
fective insulation  of  wires  at  $15,000,000,  yearly;  and  since 
rats  and  mice  are  the  chief  agents  in  impairing  the  insulation 
after  the  wires  are  in  place,  a  large  part  of  the  above  sum 
must  be  charged  to  these  animals. 

RAW  RUBBER— See   Crude  Rubber. 

RAZOR  STROPS— After  being  tanned  and  dressed,  they 
may  be  oiled  with  tallow  or  neatsfoot  oil  dressing,  and  then 
embossed.  Wooden  handles  may  also  be  made  on  the  prem- 
ises.    See  Leather. 

REAR  YARDS  which  are  untidy  with  rubbish,  old  boxes, 
etc.,  have  been  the  cause  of  many  fires.  Should  be  kept 
clean.     See  Vacant  Lots. 

RECEIVING  STATIONS  are  depots  where  customers* 
goods  are  received  to  be  sent  away  to  factories,  such  as 
goods  to  be  dyed,  laundered,  etc.  Usually  good  risks  if  only 
minor  repairs  are  made. 

RECIPROCATING  MOTION— The  opposite  of  revolv- 
ing motion. 

RECORDS — On  wooden  racks,  tier  upon  tier,  offer  no  re- 
sistance to  fire  and  the  dried-out  bindings  and  paper  con- 
duce to  the  rapid  spread  of  a  fire.  Government  archives 
with  records  of  surveys,  and  similar  records  of  private  firms 
are  irreplaceable,  when  once  destroyed.  Heads  of  institu- 
tions show  a  marked  lack  of  thoroughness  in  leaving  such 
records  exposed  to  the  fire  fiend.     See  Patterns. 

RECTIFYING— A  cold  process  by  which  the  "proof"  of 
the  liquor  (percentage  of  alcohol  contained  therein),  is  either 
raised  or  lowered.  Water  is  used  to  reduce,  and  additional 
alcohol  to  raise  the  proof.  Commercial  alcohol  is  about  90 
proof.  Aside  from  the  .handling  of  alcohol,  there  is  no  haz- 
ard to  this  process.  See  Concentration  by  Fractional  Dis- 
tillation;  see   Liquors  and  Distilleries. 

RED  LEAD — An  oxide  of  lead.  In  its  making,  special 
furnaces  are  required.  The  cuppellation  furnace  converts 
metallic  lead  into  litharge.  The  reverberatory  furnace  or  oven 
reduces  metallic  lead  into  litharge. 

RED  OIL  is  oleic  acid.  When  impure,  said  to  ignite 
spontaneously. 


REFRIGERATION  375 

RED-SANDERS  WOOD— An  East  Indian  wood  used  in 
dyeing. 

REDUCTION — A  process  carried  on  by  treating  the  com- 
pound to  be  reduced  with  powdered  metal,  the  purpose  being 
to  abstract  a  certain  amount  of  oxygen  by  forcing  it  into 
combination  with  the  reducing  element. 

REDWOOD— Although  a  soft  wood  offers  considerable 
resistance  to  fire;  is  very  slow  to  ignite  and  will  not  burn 
except  under  the  most  favorable  condition.  Used  for  out- 
side walls  of  frame  buildings  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States. 

REED  AND  RATTAN— See  Artificial  Flowers  and  Feath- 
ers.    See  Willow. 

REFINERS  AND  SMELTERS  OF  METALS— Fur- 
naces, kettles,  pits,  etc.,  should  be  carefully  inspected  as  to 
setting  and  clearance.  Usually  occupy  ramshackle  properties. 
See  Sweep  Smelters. 

REFRIGERATION— There  are  two  systems  of  producing 
artificial  refrigeration  in  common  use  at  the  present  time,  in 
both  of  which  the  use  of  volatile  liquids  is  necessary.  They 
are  commercially  known  as  the  "compression"  and  "absorp- 
tion" systems,  named  in  order  of  their  popularity.  In  the 
compression  system,  ammonia  and  carbon  dioxide  are  com- 
monly used,  the  former  being  the  more  dangerous  from 
nearly  all  points  of  view. 

The  compression  system  is  divided  into  three  parts, 
namely  the  compressor,  the  condenser  and  the  expansion 
sections.  The  compressor  draws  the  expanded  or  heated 
gas  from  the  expansion  coils,  compresses  and  forces  it  un- 
der pressure  through  the  condenser  coils  (coils  of  pipe 
cooled  by  running  water),  where  the  gas  is  again  reduced  to 
a  liquid  and  conducted  to  the  expansion  coils  which  it  en- 
ters through  an  expansion  valve  (usually  a  needle  valve). 
The  expansion  coils  are  iron  pipes  in  which  the  volatile  boils 
or  vaporizes.  Volatiles  in  use  require  a  great  deal  of  heat 
to  vaporize.  This  heat  is  taken  from  the  surroundings  of 
the  expansion  coils.  As  the  gas  becomes  heated  it  is  again 
withdrawn  by  the  compressor  and  forced  through  the  same 
cycle  of  operation  as  before. 


376  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

The  absorption  system  is  not  as  hazardous  as  the  com- 
pression system  inasmuch  as  no  mechanical  energy  is  nec- 
essary except  a  small  pump  used  in  forcing  the  solutions 
from  one  part  of  the  system  to  another  Volatile  gases  will 
not  condense  at  the  temperature  produced  by  the  running 
water  at  the  condenser  unless  they  are  under  pressure.  In 
the  compression  system,  the  pressure  is  maintained  by  the 
compressor.  In  the  absorption  system,  the  pressure  is  main- 
tained by  boiling.  A  solution  of  aqua  ammonia  is  placed  in 
a  boiler  (usually  steam-heated).  The  ammonia  having  much 
the  lower  boiling  point  is  promptly  vaporized  at  a  pressure 
sufficient  for  condensation  and  is  conducted  through  various 
sections  (purifying  and  separating),  until  it  reaches  the  con- 
densers, where  it  returns  to  liquid  form  and  is  conducted  to 
the  expansion  coils  (refrigerator)  as  in  the  compression 
system. 

After  the  gas  has  done  its  frigorific  work,  it  is  conducted 
to  a  chamber  in  which  it  is  mixed  with  and  finally  absorbed 
by  water,  the  mixture  returning  to  the  boiler  or  generator 
where  it  undergoes  the  process  of  distillation  as  before.  The 
expansion  coils  are  sometimes  used  in  direct  refrigeration, 
i.  e.,  the  volatile  is  allowed  to  expand  in  coils  of  pipes  in 
the  refrigerator,  usually  located  at  the  sides  or  top.  Where 
high  temperatures  are  desired,  however,  the  expansion  coils 
are  immersed  in  tanks  containing  a  rich  brine,  which  is 
cooled  by  the  expansion  of  the  volatile,  and  forced  through 
pipes  in  the  refrigerator. 

Hazards — Boiler  and  engine-room  hazards  usually  exist  in 
connection  with  refrigeration  plants,  and  the  inherent  haz- 
ards should  be  properly  guarded.  In  addition  there  are  se- 
vere incidental  refrigeration  hazards,  especially  where  am- 
monia is  used.  Ammonia  forms  explosive  mixtures  with 
lubricating  oils  in  the  compressor.  In  order  that  this  haz- 
ard be  confined  to  the  least  possible  space,  oil  traps  are 
placed  in  the  pipe  line  between  the  compressor  and  con- 
denser, designed  to  remove  the  oil  from  the  gas.  No  open 
lights  should  be  allowed  in  engine  room.  No  ammonia 
cylinders  (filled)  should  be  kept  on  the  premises  except  in 
room  at  low  temperature. 


REFRIGERATING    PLANT    FIRE  377 

Fire  Department  Connections  are  now  required  in  New 
York  City  for  plants  above  a  certain  tonnage  capacity.  A 
connection  is  made  between  by-pass  connected  with  safety 
valve  and  sewer.  The  connection  is  provided  so  that  water 
may  be  injected  to  absorb  and  cool  ammonia,  and  neutralize 
the  inflammable  gas,  if  any  be  present. — W.  J.  Tallamy. 
See  Bunker  Rooms;  see  Cold  Storage. 

REFRIGERATION  (iceless)  in  the  home.  The  refriger- 
ator is  made  on  the  principle  of  the  "ammonia  absorption" 
system.  The  machine  has  a  combined  absorber,  generator  or 
still,  condenser  and  receiver.  Into  the  generator  (which  is 
heated  by  artificial  means),  is  placed  a  mixture  of  ammonia 
and  v^ater.  The  heat  distills  the  ammonia,  which  passes 
through  a  water  jacket  pipe  to  the  condenser  and  cooler, 
and  passes  on  in  the  form  of  anhydrous  ammonia  to  the  re- 
ceiver. The  ammonia  vapor  in  the  receiver  takes  up  con- 
siderable latent  heat,  and  the  receiver  becomes  intensely 
cold,  cooling  the  surroundings.  The  process  is  repeated 
automatically  by  cooling  of  the  generator  by  means  of  a 
water  jacket,  which  creates  a  vacuum  in  the  generator,  and 
the  vaporized  ammonia  rushes  from  the  receiver  back  to  the 
generator.     A   small  apparatus. 

'refrigerating  PLANT  FIRE— Fire  was  caused  by 
ignition  of  waste  paper,  etc.,  and  generated  an  intense  heat 
which  melted  the  lead  joints  in  the  condenser,  releasing  the 
ammonia  gas.  This  gas  (probably  foul  gas),  composed 
largely  of  hydrogen,  due  to  the  disassociation  of  ammonia 
gases  under  heat  from  pressure,  ignited  and  burned  like 
huge  blow-torches  under  heavy  pressure.  After  the  inflam- 
mable foul  gases  had  been  expelled  from  the  piping,  pure 
ammonia  vapor  undoubtedly  issued  and  probably  aided  in 
smothering  the  fire.  It  is  recommended  th^t  all  rooms  con- 
taining refrigerating  apparatus  be  cut  off  from  the  balance 
of  plant  by  fireproof  partition,  with  approved  automatic  fire 
doors  at  the  openings. 

REGULATING  RHEOSTATS  are  boxes  containing  re- 
sistance coils.  They  are  attached  to  the  motor  generators 
and   can   be   adjusted   to   give   any   resistance   desired.     The 


378  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Speed  of  machines  can  be  thus  varied  at  will  and  their 
voltage  thus  controlled. 

RE-INSURANCE— Oftentimes  a  company  will  write  a 
larger  policy  on  a  risk  than  the  **line  sheet"  calls  for,  to  ac- 
commodate a  broker  or  an  assured,  who  desires  policies  for 
large  amounts.  To  reduce  its  net  liability,  the  company 
then  places  part  of  its  line  in  another  company.  A  re-insur- 
ing company  may  require  "a  retainer  clause"  to  be  put  on  its 
policy,  especially  on  poor  risks,  which,  in  brief,  states  that 
the  company  holding  the  original  policy  and  reinsuring 
agrees  to  retain  as  much  liability  as  it  is  reinsuring.  See 
Liability;  see  Placer. 

RE-LYT — A  water-proofing  compound  used  in  shoe  fac- 
tories for  softening  leather.  Made  of  oils  and  greases.  Flash 
about  350  deg.  F.  Classed  non-inflammable,  non-hazardous. 
No  thinner  required. 

REMOTE  RISKS  should  be  written  with  extreme  care. 
The  one  fact  of  being  in  territory  not  readily  accessible  for 
inspection  is  efiough  to  satisfy  the  company  that  low  lia- 
bility should  be  assumed.     See  Accessibility. 

RENDERING  FATS  AND  GREASE— Unprofitable  as  a 
class.  The  entire  interior  is  usually  grease-soaked  and 
burns  rapidly.  The  tankage,  or  solid  matter  left  after  render- 
ing, is  pressed  into  blocks  and  used  as  fertilizer.  See  Fat 
Rendering. 

RENEWAL — A  policy  continued  in  force  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  original  contract  by  the  issuance  of  a  '^renewal 
receipt"  or  by  issuing  a  new  policy  under  the  same  condi- 
tions as  the  original,  to  take  eflfect  as  the  old  policy  expires. 

RENT  INSURANCE  is  written  mainly  on  apartment 
houses  to  cover  loss  of  rents  in  case  of  fire.  Two  forms  are 
used,  occupied  or  occupied  and  vacant.  Better  than  build- 
ing insurance.  While  the  fire  loss  may  be  50  per  cent.,  the 
rent  insurance  may  be  one-third  or  less,  figured  on  the  length 
of  time  it  takes  to  repair  the  building.  Only  competent  un- 
derwriters  should  accept  "rent"  insurance. 

RENTS  AND  LEASEHOLDS— Sums  derivable  from 
real  property,  which  are  lost  by  the  assured  if  a  fire  inter- 
rupts the  continuous  enjoyment  of  the  property.     As  to  the 


RESPONSIBILITY    FOR    FIRES  379 

tenant  under  lease,  a  fire  means  the  destruction  or  impair- 
ment of  the  property  right  for  which  he  has  paid  or  is  ob- 
ligated to  pay. 

REPELLO — Waterproof  comxpound  used  in  shoe  factories, 
not  volatile  or  inflammable.     Can  be  used  inside  of  building. 

RESERVE  of  an  insurance  company  is  based  upon  the 
amount  of  unearned  premiums  of  policies  in  force.  States 
require  a  definite  percentage  of  all  premiums  to  be  set  aside 
by  the  company  ranging  from  40  to  100  per  cent.  It  is  for 
the  protection  of  outstanding  policy  holders. 

RESIDENCE  SECTIONS— Usually  deteriorate  when 
changing  from  one  class  of  people  to  another  less  desirable 
class.  Values  depreciate  especially  near  the  border  of  a 
growing  "colony"  section.  Very  important  to  watch  the 
growth  and  changes  in  all  sections  of  a  large  city. 

RESIDENT  BUYER— One  who  buys  from  manufactur- 
ers or  wholesalers  for  other  concerns.  They  receive  goods 
for  examination  and  act  as  a  buying  agent.  Stock  therefore 
is  only  on  trust,  belonging  to  the  manufacturer  who  sh-ps 
same,  or  to  the  consignee. 

RESIN  can  be  obtained  by  distilling  the  exudations  of  the 
fir  tree,  oil  of  turpentine  passing  over,  and  resin  remaining. 
Inflammable.     See  Rosin. 

RESINATE  (precipitated)  of  zinc.  If  moist  may  ignite 
spontaneously.  The  New  York  Board  of  Underwriters  ex- 
cludes this   from  listed  storage  stores. 

RESINIFICATION— Sec  Gumming. 

RESIN  OIL— Distilled  from  resin. 

RESISTO — A  water-proofing  compound  for  sole  leather. 
Used  in  shoe  factories.  No  thinner  required.  Flash  400 
deg.   F.      Not   inflammable. 

RESPONSIBILITY  FOR  FIRES— Under  the  Code  Na- 
poleon in  France,  a  man  is  held  responsible  for  fire  damage 
to  his  neighbor.  Each  fire  is  investigated  and  the  owner  or 
tenant  of  any  premises  must  show  he  is  not  responsible  for 
a  fire  starting  in  any  premises  occupied  or  owned  by  him. 
In  France  a  tenant  usually  insures  by  one  policy  the  fol- 
lowing items.  (1)  His  own  property;  (2)  The  risk  of  re- 
sponsibility  for   damage   to   the   building;    (3)    The   risk   of 


^0  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

responsibility  for  damage  to  his  neighbors.  A  landlord  in- 
sures in  one  policy  the  following  items:  (1)  His  own  prop- 
erty; (2)  His  responsibility  for  damage  to  the  property  of 
tenants;  (3)  His  responsibility  for  damage  to  the  property 
of  neighbors. 

RESTAURANTS— Kitchens  in  hands  of  careless  people 
are  apt  to  become  very  greasy.  Bread  is  frequently  dried  in 
a  wood  box  on  shelf  over  range,  under  hood.  See  Ranges, 
also  Hotels  and  Chinese  Restaurants. 

RETAIL  BUSINESS  has  been  said  to  embrace  everything 
good,  bad  and  indifferent.  It  is  this  class  which  requires 
careful  scrutinizing  both  by  inspectors  and  underwriters. 

RETAIL  STOCKS— Considerable  value  is  under  counters 
and  subject  to  water  damage  in  case  of  fires.  Those  in 
w^ardrobes  are  better  protected  if  top  is  watertight  to  pre- 
vent staining  or  streaking  of  goods  from  water.  See  Second- 
hand Stocks. 

RETAINING  WALL— A  wall  which  retains  adjoining 
earth  or  other  material  producing  lateral  thrust. 

RETENE — Highly   inflammable   hydrocarbon. 

REVETMENT— A  retaining  wall. 

RHEA — A  species  of  nettle,  the  stalks  of  which  contain 
fibre. 

RHEOSTAT — An  electrical  device  for  introducing  and  cut- 
ting out  resistance.     See  Regulating  Rheostat. 

RHEXITE— A  sort  of  dynamite. 

RHIGOLENE  OR  SHERWOOD  OIL— See  Petroleum. 

RIBBONS — Usually  rolled  in  paper  strips  on  a  pasteboard 
centre.  This  method  gives  considerable  protection  from 
water,  smoke  and  dirt.  If  dried  quickly,  the  salvage  should 
be  large.  If  this  stock  is  laid  sidewise  on  racks  instead  of  on 
ends,  the  salvage  will  be  greater. 

RIBBONS  (manufacturing) — Consists  of  weaving,  braid- 
ing, tubing,  singeing,  yarn  preparing,  curling,  gilling  (comb- 
ing and  straightening). 

RICE,  if  wet  and  left  in  bags  will  mildew  and  be  unfit  for 
food. 

RICE  MILLS — Classed  as  a  cereal  mill  but  with  less  haz- 
ard.    Process  is   cleaning,   separating,   removing   outer   shell 


RISK  381 

(shelling),  hulling,  separating  bran,  "pearling'*  or  scouring, 
drying  bran,  grinding  in  iron  attrition  machine  at  high  speed, 
and  polishing.  Hazards  are  overheated  bearings,  steam  dry- 
rooms,  friction  and  dust  at  attrition  mills  and  polishing.  Ele- 
vator legs,  spouts  and  hoopers  set  through  floors  conduce  to 
rapid  spread  of  fire. 

RIDGE  OF  A  ROOF— Its  peak  or  sharp  edge  along  its 
very  top. 

RIDGE  POLE  (ridge  piece  or  ridge  plate)— The  highest 
horizontal  timber  in  a  roof  extending  across  the  tops  of  the 
rafters  of  the  truss. 

RIDGE  ROLL— The  roll  along  the  ridge  of  the  roof  and 
on  the  peaks  of  dormer  windows. 

RIDING  ACADEMIES— See  Stables. 

RIGHT  AND  INTEREST  OF  PAWNBROKER— Com- 
panies only  insure  money  pawnbroker  advances  on  goods 
pledged  or  pawned  together  with  the  interest  accrued.  The 
form  covering  right  and  interest  of  the  assured  in  the  articles 
and  stock  of  merchandise  in  fireproof  safes  is  considered  good 
insurance.     See  Pawnbroker. 

RING  ICE  FORMATION— A  condition  sometimes  found 
in  sprinklered  refrigeration  plants.  It  is  the  formation  of  ice 
inside  of  the  pipes  due  to  condensation  of  moisture  in  the 
compressed  air.     See  Ice  Formation. 

RIP-RAP— See  Random  Stones. 

RIP-SAW — A  kind  of  circular  saw. 

RISERS— See  Dead  Risers;  also  Live  Risers. 

RISK — In  insurance  literature  the  term  "risk"  is  a  term 
applied  to  any  piece  or  kind  of  property  which  an  insurance 
policy  may  cover.  A  "risk,"  therefore,  is  any  article  or  com- 
modity or  building  which  is  liable  to  be  damaged  or  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  which  liability  or  danger  the  insurance  com- 
pany assumes  for  a  stated  price,  called  "the  premium."  (Fire 
Facts,  issued  by  Washington  Surveying  and  Rating  Bureau.) 
See  Occupancy;  also  Hazard. 

RISKS  declined  by  other  companies  should  only  be  ac- 
cepted after  careful  survey  and  trade  reports.  Usually  the 
other  company  had  a  very  good  reason  for  declining.  See 
Full  Risk;  also  Prohibited  Risk. 


i^  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

ROAD  HOUSES — Usually  conduct  a  season  business. 
Most  of  them  are  of  light  frame  construction  and  located 
in  open  country  subjected  to  high  winds.  They  may  be  left 
unguarded  part  of  the  year.  Moral  hazard  should  be  investi- 
gated.    Fire  record  of  this  class  is  poor. 

ROASTING  is  accdtnplished  in  high  temperature  kilns  or 
ovens,  see  Kilning. 

ROCK    OIL — See    Petroleum.    A    mineral    naphtha. 

ROCK  SHAFT— One  that  rocks  or  only  makes  part  of  a 
revolution  each  w^ay. 

ROD  PIN  AND  DOWELL  MACHINE— Small  machine 
resembling  a  lathe.  Ordinarily  consists  of  a  cutter-head  and 
chuck  mounted  in  line  with  the  pulley  driving  them,  the  stock 
passing  through  the  axis  of  both.  Considerable  refuse  is 
made. 

ROENTGEN  RAYS— See  X-Rays. 

ROLLING  STOCK— The  cars,  locomotives  and  all  other 
equipment  on  wheels  of  a  railway.     See  Railroads. 

ROOF  LATHS— Narrow  strips,  laid  on  rafter  to  which 
the  shingles   are  nailed. 

ROOF  SPACES— The  space  between  the  top  floor  ceiling 
and  roof.  They  are  usually  accessible  from  the  scuttle  open- 
ing leading  to  the  roof  and  may  be  used  for  storage  pur- 
poses. The  openings  leading  from  scuttle  to  roof  space 
should  be  closed  in  with  one-inch  boards  or  trapped  at  ceil- 
ing. In  frame  rows,  roof  spaces  between  buildings  must  be 
cut  off  by  incombustible  partitions.  Usually,  unless  the  party 
walls  are  brick  filled  to  the  lower  part  of  the  roof  boards 
plaster  boards  are  nailed  each  side  of  the  studs,  the  joints 
filled  with  cement  plaster.  Many  disastrous  fires  have  spread 
through  these  concealed  spaces,  and  firemen  experience  dif- 
ficulty getting  at  the  seat  of  the  fire.  See  Attics;  see  Frame 
Rows. 

ROOFING — A  five-ply  composition  roof  properly  laid  is 
considered  the  equal  of  a  metal  roof  by  some  rating  bureaus. 

ROOFING  CEMENT— Consists  of  pitch,  tar  or  asphalt 
with  inflammable  solvents. 

ROOFING  MOPS — Those  dipped  in  asphaltum  or  coal 
tar  and  left  to  dry  or  drain  may  ignite  spontaneously.  Used 


ROPfe  MANUFACTURINd^'^^^^ 


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in  making  tar  and  gravel  roofs.     Should  b^e^r'eitioyed  frotti 

the'  building  when  not  in  use.    '  ."-  ..    .•...;.. •'^;.       ., 

ROPE  MANUFACTURING— The  fibred  u^ed  are  HerriiJ; 

jute    and    coir.      Machinery    consists    of    tearing    ihiacliiii^i 


fOR. 

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^.  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

(devils)  which  break  up  the  long  tow  ready  for  treatment  in 
the  breakers,  finishers  and  carding  machines;  the  hemp  sof- 
tening machines,  which. reduce  the  harshness  of  the  fibre  by 
the  crushing  action  of  the  fluted  surface  of  the  rolls;  the 
spreading  or  preparing  machines,  called  "chain  drawer" 
which  dress  the  hemp  fibres,  parallelizing  them  and  forming 
them  into  "sliver."  At  the  back  end  of  this  machine  there 
is  a  tank  containing  an  emulsion  of  oil  and  water  used  as  a 
lubricant  for  the  fibre  under  treatment.  The  drawing  frame 
machine  is  a  fibre  dressing  machine  somewhat  similar  to  the 
chain  drawer,  but  used  for  the  more_refined  finishing  process 
of  dressing.  \^— v 

ROSETTES — Circular  or  ornamental  fixtures  from  which 
drop  cords  for  electrical  lamps  are  suspended. 

ROSIN — Common  resin  or  rosin  is  obtained  as  a  residium 
in  the  distillation  of  oil  of  turpentine.  It  burns  rapidly  with 
dense  yellow  sooty  flame. 

ROSIN   OIL  is  distilled  from  rq^in.,  ,ItJs  a  light  oii 
Same  inflammability  as  turpentine.  ^^    v^       .       v4 

ROTARY  CONVERTOR— An  appaTaTui  tor  cfian^^^^^ 
ternating  currents  into  direct  currents. 

ROT-STEEP — An  alkaline  lye  used  to  remove  the  sizing 
on  calico  cloth  before  it  is  printed. 

ROTTEN-STONE— An  earthy  mineral  used  in  hand  rub- 
bing and  finishing  furniture. 

ROUTING  is  grooving  out. 

ROYAL  SPIRITS— Not  approved  by  underwriters  as  a 
benzine  substitute. 

RUBBER  BALLOONS  AND  TOYS— Rubber  is  mixed 
with  naphtha  in  power  mixers  and  put  in  open  dip  tanks. 
Wood  forms,  previously  shellaced,  are  dipped  in  this  rubber 
solution  until  coated,  and  then  dried  by  hot  air.  When  dry 
the  thin  rubber  skin  is  stripped  from  the  form,  cured  in  bath 
of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  chloride  of  sulphur  and  alcanin  paste, 
powdered  with  soap  stone  and  packed.  Water  colors  and 
lamp-black  are  used  for  coloring.     A  poor  fire  record  class. 

RUBBER  CEMENT— A  heavy  solution  of  rubber  in  gaso- 
line, naphtha  or  carbon  bisulphide.  Inflammable.  In  facto- 
ries underwriters  permit  only  two  quarts  for  each  floor,  same 


V  RUBBER-COATED  CLOTH  385 

to  be  kept  in  safety  pots  and  thinned  with  carbon  tetra- 
chloride. If  a  greater  quantity  is  required,  the  excess  must 
be  stored  outside  of  building. 

RUBBER-COATED  CLOTH— Rubber  grinding  machines 
wash  and  remove  the  impurities.  It  is  then  mixed  with  min- 
eral powders  such  as  paris  white,  pyrites,  etc.,  and  dried  by 
air.  A  machine  with  two  steel  rolls  grinds  the  mineral  mat- 
ter into  the  rubber.  It  is  then  churned  in  gasoline.  The  dis- 
solved rubber  is  spread  upon  sheets  of  cloth  in  a  spreading 
machine  which  coats  the  cloth,  after  which  it  is  either  coated 
with  potato  starch  and  printed  or  the  printing  is  done  with  a 
solution  containing  carbon  tetra-chloride  as  a  solvent.  All 
machines  should  be  grounded  especially  at  the  knives  of 
spreaders  to  remove  any  static  electricity.  The  rubber  iis 
vulcanized  by  being  draped  on  racks  in  steam  heated  room 
at  about  250  deg.  F.  or  cured  by  passing  the  goods  over  a 
roll  partly  submerged  in  a  trough  of  carbon-bisulphide,  car- 
bon tetra-chloride  and  chloride  of  sulphur'.'    ''^-fo  i'.uj,  :LMi  ^ 

RUBBER,  Crude — Considered  desirable  insurance,  as  it 
has  practically  no  fire  hazard.  It  is  apt  to  deteriorate  from 
heat  if  piled  closely,  therefore  it  should  be  piled  loosely  in 
a  cool  place  such  as  a  basement.  It  is  received  in  this  coun- 
try in  large  chunks  called  "biscuits."  .'^^i    -^Aor^i    fJ: 

Raw  Rubber  shrinks  greatly  in  transit,  and  the'losiS  is  made 
up  by  covering  the  rubber  with  sulphur,  rosin  and  turpen- 
tine after  it  reaches  the  warehouse.  The  rubber  absorbs 
this  mixture  and  the  loss  is  made  up  in  a  few  weeks.  There 
is  some  danger  of  rubber  igniting  when  treated : i^i  tjhjs.  man- 
ner. •     ■  .  ^--.rry.      ^-.~r,;-.r-.n^ 

RUBBER  (imitation) — As  used  for  parts  of  electrical  'ap- 
paratus, telephone  receivers  and  transmitters  and  for  insu- 
lating. Made  of  crude  shellac,  ground  mica,  terra  elba  (or 
infusorial  earth)  ground  asbestos  and  tar  oil.  These  are  all 
placed  in  a  steam  heated  mixer  and  reduced  to  a  pliable  pulp, 
then  rolled  into  sheet  or  block  form,  or  placed  in  hydraulic 
presse-s  containing  steel  moulds.  From  presses  they  are 
cooled  by  natural  air,  then  passed  to  cutting,  trimming  and 
buffing  machines.     No  benzine  or  cement.     Hazards,  mixing, 


3!66  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

rolling;  pressing,  buffing,  packing,   trimming.     The   material 
is;  worked  on  machines  for  ordinary  use.  '-^t 

RUBBER  (old) — Rubber  or  old  metals  are  considered  de- 
sirable insurance  by  themselves;  but  in  connection  with  rag 
QF  paper  stock  are  poor  risks. 

.  \RUBBER  for  mechanical  purposes— Process 
similar  to  manufacturing  other  forms  of  rubber.  The  rubber 
is  made  into  strips  or  sheets  from  the  crude  stock. 
^^JRUBBER  LINED  CLOTH  is  made  by  inserting  a  sheet 
;oi  rubber  between  two  thicknesses  of  cloth  and  drawing. them 
tnrpugh  steam  heated  calender.  The  cloth  is  coated  ,|«rat>i 
, talcum  to  prevent  adhering  when  it  is  rolled  up. 
J.'  A  lire  r  occurred  in  a  coating  machine  when  in  operation, 
probably  from  static  electricity.  The  coating  mixture  was 
being  poured  into  a  tank  which  communicated  with  trough 
in  "dope"  (mixture)  machine  by  pipe.  The  difference  be- 
tween "dope"  machine  and  the  spreader  is  that  the  dope  ma- 
chine runs  over  roller  which  revolves  in  mixture  in  trough, 
while  the  spreader  mixture  runs  directly  on  the  upper  surface 
of  stretched  cloth  and  is  spread  out  by  the  cloth  passing 
under  knife  edges. 

RUBBER  RECLAIMING— Old  shoes,  rubber  boots,  hose 
and  the  like  are  used.  Much  foreign  matter,  such  as 
nails,  tacks,  fabric  are  extracted  by  hand.  The  stock  is  then 
cut  up  by  hand  and  broken  in  small  pieces  in  a  "cracker," 
then  placed  in  a  lead  lined  wooden  tank  of  sulphuric  acid, 
which  eats  out  the  remaining  foreign  matter.  It  is  then 
washed,  ground,  calendered,  dried,  mixed  with  coal  tar  resid- 
ium  and  vulcanized. 

RUBBER  SHODDY— Regenerated  or  reclaimed  rubber 
consists  of  old  rubber  which  has  been  subjected  to  chemical 
treatment  to  prepare  it  for  further  use  in  the  rubber  indus- 
try.    Liable  to  ignite  spontaneously.     Called  "springs."     : 

RUBBER  TIRES  for  automobiles.  Crude  rubber  is  washed, 
cut,  dried  by  air  or  vacuum,  made  into  sheets.  Fabric  is  im- 
pregnated with  rubber  in  calender  rolls,  cut  into  bias  strips 
(a  cotton  cloth  being  placed  between  strips  to  prevent  ad- 
hering). Tire  is  built  up  in  successive  layers  and  cemented 
together  with  rubber  cement,  then  worked  on  core  or  form. 


RUBBER  TIRE  387 

The  rubber  cover  is  applied  and  the  mass  pressed,  under  hy- 
draulic power,  vulcanized,  painted  with  chalk  on  inside,  in- 
spected and  packed. 

Some  makes,  when  received  from  the  factory,  are  wrapped 
in  a  waterproof  paper,  lined  on  the  inside  with  a  water- 
proofing solution  containing  black  asphaltum.  When  this 
paper  is  thoroughly  wet,  the  black  sticks  to  the  tires,  and 
unless  it  can  be  readily  cleaned  off  with  benzine,  the  tires 
must  be  sold  as  seconds.     All  tire  stocks  should  be  skidded. 

RUBBING  OIL — That  used  by  furniture  dealers  usually 
has  a  crude  oil  base.  Rags  saturated  with  this  are  subject 
to  spontaneous  combustion.  i        .; 

RUBBISH  of  most  any  sort  is  a  breeding  place- f6r' fires. 

RUBBLE — Masonry  of  rough  undressed  stone.     '•'       ' 

RUINS— See  Fire  Ruift'S;  >wi>no3-nKnr  u  bn/. 


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SACCHARINE — Similar  to  sugar,  the  saccharine  matter 
of  the  cane  juice.  It  is  artificially  prepared  from  toluene, 
the  substance  found  in  the  light  distillate  of  coal  tar.  Used 
in  making  candy. 

SACKETT  BOARD— Made  of  four  layers  of  wool  felt 
and  three  layers  of  gypsum  plaster,  the  outer  surface  bejng 
felt.  Made  in  thicknesses  of  54  inch,  ^  inch  and  5^  inch. 
Fire  retardant  and  a  non-conductor  of  heat  and  sounds 

SADDENING — In  the  mordanting  of  cotton,  iron  or  cop- 
per  sulphates   are   used   for   saddening   or   darkening. 

SAFES  are  rendered  fireproof  by  the  moisture  held  in  the 
intermolecular  spaces  of  the  fireproof  composition.  When 
the  safe  gets  hot  this  moisture  is  driven  by  the  exterior  heat 
into  the  interior  of  the  safe  in  the  form  of  steam,  thus  keep- 
ing the  interior  or  temperature  of  the  safe  below  the  point  of 
ignition  or  charring.  This  is  proved  after  the  safe  has  passed 
through  a  hot  fire  and  is  opened.  Everything  inside  the  safe 
is  protected,  owing  to  the  condensation  of  the  steam.  In- 
spectors should  measure  thickness  of  all  walls  and  doors. 
See  Vaults. 

SAFETY-VALVE— A  valve  on  a  boiler  which  automati- 
cally opens  at  a  predetermined  pressure,  and  above  which 
pressure  it  would  not  be  safe  to  force  the  boiler.  It  lessens 
the  danger  of  explosions. 

SAGAX  WOOD — Made  of  ground  straw  and  cement 
binder. 

SALAMANDER — A  paper  used  between  floors.  It  is  wa- 
terproof and  fire-resisting. 

SALAMANDER — An  open  top,  portable,  cylindrical  stove 
on  legs.  Used  in  buildings  in  course  of  construction,  stone 
y^rds,  sheds  and  foundries  for  heating  purposes.  Coal  and 
coke  are  commonly  used  as  fuel. 

388 


nTI>iW5:   '    SALOONS       •'lii^ijU:  ^89 

SALIENT — An  angle  or  corner  projecting  outward. 

SALOL — A  modern  drug  made  by  treating  phosphorus 
with  chlorine  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  product  is  mixed 
with  salicylic  acid  in  powdered  form  and  carbolic  acid  in  a 
heated  glass  retort. 

y  SALOONS — The  bar  fixtures  and  advertising  signs  are 
usually  owned  by  the  brewery  supplying  the  beer.  Ordina- 
rily only  the  stock  is  owned  by  the  saloonkeeper.  They  are 
considered  good  fire  risks,  and  the  loss  ratio. i§  very  good. 
Saloons  situated  along  water  fronts  and  in  "dive"  localities 
catering  to  a  low  element  are  not  considered  good  risks, 
but  when  profitable  to  the  owners,  can  be  written  with  cau- 
tion. Prohibition  legislation,  police  activities,  etc.,  have 
forced  liquor  stores  out  of  business.  Many  fires  in  this  class 
are  caused  by  men  of  a  nationality  naturally  hot  tempered 
and  quarrelsome,  who  may  upset  a  stove  or  lamp  in  a  saloon 
brawl.  Usually  have  gas  stove  on  wood  with  rubber  tube 
connection  behind  lunch  counter  and  an  unsafe  swinging  gas 
bracket  in  basement  at  ice  box. 

SALT,  if  placed  with  kerosene  or  other  hydrocarbon  oil, 
will  arrest  hydrogen  and  prevent  an  explosion. 

SALT  DEALERS — The  incidental  hazards  are  mixing, 
milling  and  packing  salt.  Power  belt  conveyors  should  be 
given  special  attention  by  inspectors.  Salt  in  bins  is  ren- 
dered inedible  if  wet  with  dirty  water. 

SALT  HAY  is  recommended  for  packing  material  in  glass- 
ware and  other  risks  where  large  quantities  are  used.  It 
burns  very  much  slower  than  ordinary  hay.  See  Packing 
Bins. 

SALT  HIDES— See  Hides. 

SALTPETRE — (Extracting  saltpetre  from  nitre  and  chlor- 
ide of  potash.)  A  saturated  solution  of  water  and  nitre  is 
made  in  flat,  iron,  open-top  steam-heated  tanks,  to  which  is 
added  chloride  of  potash.  The  mixture  is  boiled  for  about  24 
hours,  pumped  to  cylindrical  steam-heated  kettles  where  it  is 
concentrated  by  re-boiling.  Both  .the  water  and  the  residue 
are  drawn  ofif  to  open-top  iron  tanks  where  they  are  allowed 
to  settle  and  evaporate.  The  mixture  at  this  point  consists  of 
saltpetre   with   impurities,   dirt   and   sodium   carbonate.     The 


390  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

salt  settles  at  the  bottom  of  the  tanks  containing  the  water  of 
solution,  and  after  the  water  is  drained  off,  the  salt  is  shov- 
eled out.  The  mixture  when  evaporated,  is  placed  in  other 
tanks  where  it  is  boiled  and  washed,  then  crystalized  in 
wooden  tanks.  The  crystals  are  carried  in  a  worm  conveyor, 
and  are  dried  while  passing  through  a  dryer  which  is  usually 
frame,  steam  and  hot-air  heated.  The  crystals  are  sifted  and 
ground  in  burr  mills.  About  100  pounds  each  of  nitre  and 
potash  will  make  116  pounds  of  saltpetre  and  60  pounds  of 
salt.  The  nitre  while  in  bags  absorbs  moisture  from  the 
air  and  is  always  damp.  When  empty,  the  potash  and  nitre 
bags  are  boiled  to  reclaim  the  remaining  substances.  The 
floors  are  soaked  and  dripping  with  saltpetre  when  the  plant 
is  in  operation.  If  the  plant  were  shut  down,  there  might 
be  some  danger  from  spontaneous  combustion  in  wood  floors 
when  very  dry,  as  they  might  ignite  spontaneously,  as  do  dry 
nitre  bags.  Brick  drying  ovens  are  sometimes  used  for  the 
higher  grades  of  crystals.     See   Potassium  Nitrate. 

SALTPETRE  OR  POTASSIUM  NITRATE  is  found  prin- 
cipally in  the  warm  sections  of  India  where  rain  rarely  falls. 
It  is  produced  by  the  decay  of  nitrogenous  substances  in  the 
presence  of  air,  moisture  and  alkaline  earths.  It  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  high  explosives,  gunpowder  and  fire- 
works, as  a  preservative  and  for  medicinal  purposes.      .  ^'  ' 

SALTPETRE  AND  NITRE,  storage  and  handling.~£ike 
the  chlorate,  it  gives  up  its  oxygen  very  readily  and  has  many 
similar  characteristics.  In  contact  with  any  combustible  mat- 
ter it  decomposes  rapidly,  five-sixths  of  its  oxygen  being 
available  for  the  oxidation  of  combustible  matter.  Its  ca- 
pacity for  supporting  combustion  will  be  appreciated  when 
it  is  known  that  one  volume  of  nitre  represents  3,000  volumes 
of  air  in  its  power  for  supporting  combustion.  Fires  in  the 
empty  bags  in  which  the  nitre  has  been  kept  are  therefore 
imminent  and  burn  fiercely.  In  fact,  in  the  presence  of  car- 
ton (as  in  wood)  nitre  burns  stubbornly  in  all  cases.  When 
in  contact  with  hot  coals  occasioned  by  an  external  fire  or 
by  a  fire  resulting  spontaneously  it  deflagrates  violently. 
It  oxidizes  sulphur  with  unusual  ease. — Hooker's  Chemistry. 

SALTS — This    term    ordinarily   used    by^  chemists,    means 


SALVAGE   CORPS  391 

substances  which  are  neither  acid  nor  alkaline  and  yet  contain 
the  main  ingredients  of  both  acids  and  alkalis,  like  sulphate 
of  potash. 

SALVAGE  (buildings) — When  a  large  fire  is  reported  most 
insurance  companies  immediately  send  an  inspector  to  give  a 
rough  estimate  of  the  amount  of  loss,  so,  that  they  may  know 
their  approximate  losses  each  day.  In  a  six  story  and  base- 
ment brick  building  of  ordinary  construction,  the  brick  walls 
can  be  figured  at  40  per  cent,  of  value  and  8.5  per  cent,  for 
each  floor  and  roof.     See  Valuation  of  Building. 

SALVAGE  CORPS— The  New  York  Salvage  Corps  is 
maintained  by  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters 
for  the  purpose  of  salvaging  goods  when  a  fire  occurs.  Tar- 
paulins are  thrown  over  the  merchandise,  water  is  pumped 
out  of  basements,  temporary  roofs  are  put  on  buildings,  to 
prevent  further  water  damage.  A  patrolman  is  stationed  on 
the  premises  to  prevent  removal  of  goods  by  trespassers. 
The  corps  is  financed  by  the  company  members  of  the  Board 
of  Underwriters  by  a  system  of  taxation  according  to  the 
amount  of  premiums  received  by  each  company  in  the  terri- 
tory covered  by  the  Salvage  Corps.  A  number  of  wagons 
are  employed  which  race  to  the  fire  when  an  alarm  is  sounded. 

SALVAGING  STOCK— The  New  York  Salvage  Corps 
now  employ  a  gasoline-driven  pump  which  will  pull  1,800 
gallons  of  water  a  minute  out  of  any  flooded  basement. 
Care  must  be  taken  where  the  "forced  out"  water  is  thrown 
or  there  is  a  likelihood  of  choked  sewers  and  more  trouble. 

SANDPAPER  MACHINE,  for  smoothing  stock.  There 
are  five  types — belt,  drum,  disc,  spindle,  and  slip-and-slap. 
Belt  Sanders  consist  of  carrying  sanders  or  other  belts  cov- 
ered with  sandpaper  operating  over  two  pulleys  some  dis- 
tance apart.  Drum  sanders  are  cylindrical  in  shape,  resem- 
ble planers.  Disc  sanders  consist  of  discs  covered  with  can- 
vas and  at  the  end  of  shaft,  revolving  rapidly.  Spindle  sand- 
ers are  small  in  diameter  and  either  vertical  or  horizontal. 
Slip-and-slap  sanders  consist  of  strips  of  sandpaper  fastened 
to  hub-radials.  All  these  machines  create  a  great  deal  of 
dust  and  should  have  blower  systems  attached. 

SANDPAPER  MANUFACTURING— See  Emery. 


392  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

SANDSTONE,  used  for  building  fronts,  withstands  the  ac- 
tion of  fire  better  than  any  other  stone  front.  The  fire  and 
water  will  in  time  flake  off  the  stone. 

SANGAJO— Flash  point  139  deg.  F.  Classed  non-volatile. 

SANITAS^— A  disinfecting  and  preservative  Solution  made 
by  forcing  a  current  of  air  through  vessels  containing  hot 
water  and  turpentine. 

SAPONIFICATION— Decomposing  fats  into  fatty  acids 
and  glycerine,  as  in  soap  manufacturing. 

SAPON-WOOD— A  dye  wood. 

SARDINE  FACTORIES— The  fish  are  dumped  into  a  con- 
veyor and  carried  to  the  cutting  room,  where  in  the  case 
of  large  fish,  the  heads  and  tails  are  removed  by  knives 
and  the  entrails  cleaned  out.  They  are  then  washed  auto- 
matically and  scales  are  removed  by  attrition  during  the  con- 
veying and  washing.  The  fish  are  then  deposited  in  pick- 
ling bins.  An  endless  belt  with  cups  scoops  up  the  washed 
'fish,  elevates  them  to  the  packing  room  and  deposits  them 
on  a  flaking  machine  with  a  carrier  belt  which  receives 
fish  from  the  conveyor  and  deposits  same  side  by  side  and 
passes  them  between  large  hollow  belt-covered  squeeze  rolls 
to  remove  the  excess  water.  The  fish  are  then  deposited 
on  metal  trays  or  "flakes,"  and  as  the  trays  are  filled  they 
are  removed  to  the  drying  process  or  the  cooking  ovens. 
The  hazards  of  cooking,  drying,  oil  filling,  bathing  and  test- 
ing require  special  attention. 

SASH — The  framework  which  holds  the  squares  of  glass  in 
a  window.  A,'i-3f.  ^'  v',  .  - 

SASH  FRAME— The  frame  which  receives  th^'sasK.'' 
SATOLITE — A   substitute    for    celluloid   made    from    soya 
beans.      Claimed    by    the    manufacturers    to    be    non-inflam- 
mable. 

SAUSAGE  CASINGS— The  casings  are  packed  in  salt  in 
barrels,  pounded  down  to  make  them  compact,  and  water  is 
added  to  fill  the  barrel.  Clean  water  will  npt  have  any  bad 
effect  on  this  stock,  but  dirty  water  will  have  a  very  bad 
effect,  especially  to  the  stock  at  the  top  of  the  barrel.  Ex- 
cessive  heat   will   injure   the   quality   of   the   casings. 


SCENIC   STUDIOS  393 

SAV-ON  ,§PIR^TSrTTA  h^nm^^m^^^tnte.^cla^.^sei  .^#j  non- 
volatile.      ,l^^^  biir>  nbiyjyiotq  etti  "^riiFffiiailr  vc(  'V'ujiir)  ttaow;' 

SAWDUST  mixed  with  bicarbonate  of  soda  has  been 
found  efficacious  in  extinguishing  oil  and  grease  fires.  Saw- 
dust in  a  finely  divided  state  excludes  the  oxygen  from  the 
fire  without  which  it  must  die  out.  It  is  used  by  store- 
keepers; in  factory  spittoons,  and  at  gas  engines  and  mo- 
tors. No  sawdust  is  permitted  on  the  floor  (except  in  meat 
and  fish  markets).  Sand  should  be  substituted  in  place  of 
sawdust  for  these  purposes. 

SAW-TOOTH  ROOFS  are  generally  used  by  textile  mills 
and  machine  shops  because  they  slope  like  a  mound  and  of- 
fer better  lighting  facilities  than  the  flat  skylight.  They  are 
sometimes  called  "Northern  Lights." 

SAXON  BLUE-rr;A-L.l»ixtii^e^.p|^iijdigQ,,  sulphuric  acid,  pot- 
ash and  water.  ^r^G^  qiiog  r,musoo^     .xgiI 

SCANTLING — A  timber  less  than  five  inches  square  a.t  the, 
end.,      .,.::,   ...iUv^r:  -rAHO^ 

SCENIC  STUDIOS  (painting  scenery)  not  in  connection 
with  theatres.  The  main  part  of  the  studio  building  is  a 
very  high  one-story,  tower-like  structure  which  permits  the 
stretching  and  painting  of  very  large  canvasses.  Use  coal  or 
gas  stoves  for  heating  glue  for  sizing,  and  water.  May  also 
use  benzine  thinned  paint.     Considered  poor  insurance  risks. 

SCHEDULE,  as  used  by  rating  bureaus,  is  the  make-up 
of  the  insurance  rate,  as,  for  example,  Metal  Workers,  whose 
base  rate  is  75  cents  plus  five  cents  for  skylights,  plus  10 
cents  for  floor  openings,  less  10  cents  for  water  pails,  etc. 

SCHEDULE  is  a  general  form  used  in  writing  insurance 
on  plants  consisting  of  several  buildings  instead  of  writing 
a  separate  policy  on  each  building  or  contents  thereof.  The 
total  amounts  of  each  item  are  arranged  in  order,  and  the 
insurance  companies  write  a  certain  percentage  of  the  en- 
tire schedule.  This  also  simplifies  matters  for  the  assured  and 
reduces  danger  of  non-current  forms.     See  Blanket  Policy. 

SCHEDULE  EXPERT  is  primarily  an  inspector  of  merit 
who  is  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  many  schedules  in 
use.  He  must  be  well  versed  in  construction,  hazards,  sal- 
vagie  oi  various  merchandises,  heating  apparatus,  chemistry, 


394  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

etc.  His  mission  is  to  reduce  the  rate  of  insurance  to  its 
lowest  figure  by  installing  fire  protection  and  other  devices. 

SCHOOL  HAZARDS— Manual  training  rooms,  with  oily 
rags,  rubbish,  shavings,  glue-pots  and  domestic  science  rooms 
with  gas  stores;  janitors'  rooms  with  floor  oil,  paints  for  use 
about  building,  janitors'  supplies;  small  repair  shop,  and 
storage  rooms  for  old  fixtures  and  desks;  floor  mops,  chemical 
laboratory.  Where  plumbing  is  taught  small  plumbers'  shop 
hazard. 

Inspectors  should  be  very  careful  to  note  the  termination 
of  the  air  ducts  in  schools  built  a  decade  ago,  whether  they 
terminate  at  the  floor  of  the  attic  or  are  carried  through 
roof.  Unless  through  roof,  a  fire  can  be  sucked  through  the 
duct  to  the  attic  and  burn  oflF  the  roof.  >•>!!/.  :->iiuv}uu>^ 

SCOURING  SOAP  POWDER,  usually  miarfe  of  caustic 
soda,  soda  ash  and  silax.  Scouring  soap  same  as  above  with 
cocoanut  oil  added. 

SCRATCH  COAT  of  plaster;  the  coat  applied  directly  to 
the  lath,  then  scratched  with  a  trowel  to  form  a  key  tor-fhe 
finishing  coat  of  plaster.  *  ^ 

SCREED — A  wooden  strip  or  a  strip  of  mortar  laid  on 
a  wall  to  gauge  the  thickness  of   the    plastering  to   be   applied. 

SCULPTORS*  STUDIOS— Work  consists  of  composition, 
plaster,  clay,  bronze,  and  stone-work  and  sometimes  wood- 
working of  frames. 

SCUPPERS— Holes  or  tubes  to  allow  the  floors  to  be 
drained  of  water  in  case  of  fire.  If  standard  scuppers  are  in- 
stalled they  usually  have  a  bearing  on  the  insurance  rate;  gen- 
erally used  in  warehouses  and  fireproof  or  mill  constructed 
factories.  ^ 

SCUTCHING  (in  bleach  works),  the  process  of  opening 
the  cloth  after  it  has  been  washed. 

SCUTTLE— The  small  opening  leading  toai^xoo^.^'^-.^^'^^./.^ 

SEA  GRASS — Used  for  upholstering  and  polishing  furfii- 
ture.     See  Piano  Manufacturing. 

SEASHORE  HOTELS— Usually  large  area  frame,  subject 
to  sweeping  winds,  undermining  by  high  tides,  etc.  Few 
companies  write  them.     Season  occupancy.     In  case  of  bad 


nw,      SECOND-HAND  STOCKS  395 

season  by  reason  of  epidemics,  unseasonable^ » weather  or 
similar  circumstances,  a  severe  moral  hazard  creeps  4h;''  See* 
Hotels.  •  >:.  :  -  ■     ■.1^'- 

SEAMEN'S  OUTFITTERS— The  stock  consists  of  meii's 
furnishings,  hats,  caps,  ready-made  overcoats  and  clothing,, 
notions,  novelties,  toilet  soaps,  perfumes,  overalls,  oil  suits, 
rubber  boots,  shoes,  cheap  jewelry,  musical  instruments  and 
similar  articles  used  by  sailors  on  board  ship.  See  Ship 
Chandlers.       /  ;       ; 

SEARCHLIGHT  ENGINES  are  used  by  the  New  York 
Fire  Department  in  cases  where  the  lighting  system  of  the 
building  or  street  have  been  put. out i;^:^!, commission  on  ac- 
count of  fire.  '■    .,   hr-- 

SEBASTIN— A  high  explosive. 

SECOND-HAND  STOCKS  should  always  be  avoided. 
Sometimes  when  a  line  covers  new  stock,  together  with 
second-hand  stock,  a  clause  is  added,  "It  is  understood 
and  agreed  that  this  company  shall  not  be  liable  for  a  loss  or 
damage  to  any  of  the  above-described  property  for  an 
amount  in  excess  of  the  actual  cost  price  to  the  assured." 

SECRETAGE — A  process  of  crisping  hair  to  make  it  iato 
felt  by  means  of  mercury  and  nitric  acid. 

SECRET  PROCESSES  should  not  be  written,  even 
though  the  inspector  is  told  "nothing  of  a  dangerous  char- 
acter is  used,"  because  the  fire  record  shows  that  in  many 
instances  this  statement  has  been  untrue  or  misleading.      .    .- 

SECURITE— An  explosive  compound. 

SEEDS  IN  BINS  on  storage  will  not  burn  readily,  but 
when  wet  will  sprout  and  be  rendered  useless.  The  swelling 
of  wet  seeds  and  hops  in  large  quantities  in  compact  masses 
has  been  known  to  push  out  the  walls  of  brick  buildings.     »-^ 

SEGMENTAL  ARCH— A  curved  arch,  forming  the  segf^i 
ment  of  a  circle.  n  .((•».■> tin/i 

SEIDLITZ  POWDERS  contain  bicarbonate  df '^so'd^i'f 
rochelle  salts  and  tartaric  acid.  The  hazards  are  grinding, 
mixing  and  sifting.  .  / 

SELF-CLOSING  DOOR— One  ordinarily  closed  and 
which  closes  automatically  after  being  opened. 


396  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

SELF-REDUCING   CLAUSE— Used    in    connection    with  . 
leasehold  insurance.  See  Profits  of  a  Lease. 

SELF-RELEASING  BEAMS— See  Bevelled. 

SERPENTINE  PAPER— Colored;  used  for  decorating 
narrow  papers.  ..^i::-'J-'iv  :; 

SETTING — Term  used  iniboileiDDn  furnace  installations  to 
denote  the  enclosing  walls.         4  fictJiIy  »«3orl3  ^ajood  Ti^d      . 

SEVIN  OIL — Same  as  olive  oil.  Shale  oil  and  petroleum. 
Each  liquid  yields  on  fractional  distillation  a  heavy  volatile 
and  inflammable  gasoline. 

SEWERS  FROM  GARAGES— These  are  used  for  draiti'^ 
ing  off  surface  of  cleaning  floors,  the  water  from  which  con- 
tains oils  and  grease  and  gasoline.  The  sewers  are  always 
warmer  than  the  air  above  the  streets.  In  many  cases  they 
are  made  warm  from  the  escape  of  steam  or  hot  water  from 
factories.  With  volatile  oils  in  the  sewer,  we  therefore  have 
the  conditions  for  their  ready  conversion  into  vapor.  The 
gasoline  vapors  rise  and  mix  with  the  air,  while  the  heavy 
oils  find  their  way  into  the  river,  or  when  the  mouth  of  the 
sewer  is  closed  they  gather  at  the  water  level  within  the 
sewer  at  some  distance  from  the  river,  to  be  discharged  only 
at  low  tide.  The  law  forbids  the  throwing  of  gasoline  into 
the  sewer,  hence  oil  separators  are  required  in  garages.  See 
Oil  Separators.  -''i^  ^'^^uon^ 

SEWING  TABLES— Where  a  double  row  of  tables  \k  tisitf 
a  continuous  trough  should  be  built  between  the  rows  in 
which  to  place  the  work  as  it  is  made,  thus  preventing  it 
from  falling  in  between  the  rows  of  machines.  See  Cutting 
Tables.  ;j  >.  ic;    '  ■  * 

SHAFTINGS  AND  BEARINGS  of  all^oHs  may  be  dan- 
gerous on  account  of  heating,  especially  if  connected  to  rapid- 
ly moving  machinery,  due  to  poor  alignment,  binding,  or  in- 
sufiicient  oil.  They  are  likely  to  become  oily,  and  to  accumu- 
late dust  and  inflammable  "fly"  or  lint,  and  also  saturate 
nearby  woodwork  with  flying  oil. 

SHAPERS  OR  FRIEZING  (spindles)  consist  of  two  ver- 
tical projections  through  a  table  and  rotating  rapidly  in  op- 
posite   directions.      Make    considerable    refuse    and   bearings 


SHAVING    VAULTS  ^i  t97 

become  overheated.  Classed  as  heavy  woodworking  ma- 
chines. ^-.,.,  -  _-,—   ^^^. 

SHAFTS — Open  shafts  are  the  quickest  and  most  natural 
means  for  a  fire  to  travel  through  a  building,  aiding  the  quick 
destruction  of  the  building  and  endangering  the  lives  of  the 
occupants.     See  Dumbwaiter   Doors. 

SHARP  SAND— Sand,  the  particles  of  which  have  facet* 
with  sharp  edges. 

SHAVING   SOAP— Principally  tallow,   stearic   acid,   pal«? 
oil,  barium  chloride,  peroxide  of  hydrogen,  oil  of  euchrelytU' 
A   steam   process,    using   kettles,    filters,     stills,    rolling    an<^ 
moulding  presses.     Also  use  solution  of  lye,  ammonium  sul- 
phate and  glycerine. 

!  SHAVING  VAULTS  should  be  constructed  of  brick  or 
concrete  walls  not  less  than  12  inches  thick  and  parapetted  at 
least  3  feet  above  roof  and  situated  outside  of  building,  with 
no  communication.  Vault  should  be  used  only  for  the  stor- 
age of  shavings  and  dust.  No  machinery,  shafting  or  belts 
should  be  operated  within  or  pass  through  the  same.  The 
roof  to  be  of  fireproof  material  with  proper  vent.  The  floor, 
of  concrete,  with  an  incline  from  the  rear  to  the  front.  There 
should  be  only  one  opening,  three  feet  from  floor  (not  over 
9  square  feet)  for  the  removal  of  the  shavings  to  the  boiler 
room,  and  this  opening  should  be  protected  by  a  ^-inch 
boiler  iron  drop  door,  operated  automatically  in  vault  chan- 
nels, which  should  be  bolted  through  the  wall.  The  boiler 
iron  vault  door  opening  just  mentioned  should  be  at  rigl^t 
angles  to  the  firing  door  of  the  boiler  and  not  nearer  th{aii 
6  feet  from  same.  Steam  jets  or  automatic  sprinklers  are 
sometimes  placed  inside  of  the  vaults.  Feed-pipes  which 
empty  their  shavings  directly  into  the  boilers  are  not  recom- 
mended.    See   Direct  Feed. — (See   Illustration  on  page  398.) 

SHEATHING — Matched  or  unmatched  boards  on  the  ex- 
terior of  a  building;  covering  a  surface  with  wood  boards, 
metal,   etc. 

SHEAVE — A  grooved  pulley  with  block  and  bearings,  and 
sheave  brackets  over  which  cables  or  ropes  are  rtin. 

SHEEP  DIP  sometimes  contains  inflammable  liquids.  A 
liquid  into  which  sheep  are  dipped  to  remove  vermin. 


39S 


INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


y!A2  qHAH2 


(Copyrighted.     Patent  applied  for.) 

Sterling  Automatic  Improved  Furnace  Feeder,  Showing  Method  of 

"Direct  Feed  to  Boiler  from  Blower  System 

(Side  Elevation) 

SHEEPSKIN — Dyers  and  dressers  use  sumac,  ,logwp^,d, 
quebracho,  sulphuric  acid,  ammonia  and  alcohol,  anilines, 
potash.  Splitters,  staining  with  air  brush,  embossing  presses 
for  fancy  articles,  greasing,  fur  dyeing  and  dressing,  are 
principal  hazards.      See  Hides. 


;:    [,»  SHIP-BUILDING         :^i<igMt  399 

SHEETING— See  Lagging. 

SHEET  TIN— See  Tin. 

SHELLAC — A  resinous  exudation  produced  by  the  punc- 
ture of  a  species  of  insect  which  congregate  in  large  numbers 
on  the  tender  branches  of  various  East  Indian  trees.  The 
insects  become  surrounded  by  the  resinous  exudation  which 
gradually  hardens,  and  in  which  the  larvae  of  the  female  re- 
main.    Dissolves  in  alcohol,  muriatic  acid,  acetic  acid. 

SHELLAC  VARNISH— Gum  shellac,  partly  dissolved.     . 

SHINGLE  ROOFS  of  wood  should  not  be  permitted.  The 
fire  record  shows  many  fires  from  this  type  of  construction. 
If  a  building  has  a  wood  shingle  roof,  the  chimney  should  be 
provided  with  a  spark-arrester.     See  Spark-arrester,      ,    . 

A  patented  fireproof  shingle  is  now  being  made  of  felt 
saturated  with  asphaltum,  in  which  ground  rock  is  imbedded, 
coated  with  asphalt  and  finished  with  ground  slate. 

SHIPBUILDERS'  YARDS  usually  have  many  low  frame 
buildings  with  power  wood-working  and  metal-working; 
foundries,  blacksmith  shop,  welding  with  compressed  gases,, 
and  painting.     Not  a  profitable  class  with  most  companies. 

SHIP-BUILDING  (Hazards  of)— In  Wood  Ship-build- 
ing yards,  woodworking,  large  woodworking  machinery, 
large  quantities  of  sayvdust,  shavings  and  chips;  recommend 
shavings  vault  and  blower  system;  accumulation  of  waste 
wood  and  chips  under  hulls  in  shipways.  This  space  should 
be  constantly  kept  cleaned  up  and  refuse  removed.  Lumber 
in  yard,  clear  space  rules  should  be  strictly  adhered  to.  Stor- 
age of  oakum  should  be  kept  in  detached  building  a  safe  dis- 
tance from  ways  and  other  buildings.  Spinning  of  oaku,ip 
should  be  done  in  a  separate  building  from  main  oakum  stor- 
age building,  this  latter  building  to  be  properly  ventilated 
at  eaves  and  ground  level  and  screened  with  fine  wire  mesh. 
Heating  of  pitch  and  creosote  important;  steam*  only  should 
be  used.  This  work  should  not  be  done  on  the  ships.  Oils 
and  paints,  etc.,  should  be  stored  in  a  separate  and  preferably 
fireproof  building.  Burning  of  waste  material  for  fuel,  special 
care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  stacks  are  provided  with  ap- 
proved spark  arresters.  Glue  heaters  in  joiner's  shop  should 
be  according  to  underwriters'  rules.     Locomotives  and  Gantry 


400  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

» 
cranes  should  be  inspected  for  fuel  used.     Storage  of  fuel-oil 

and  supply  stations  should  be  underground.     (J.  H.  Ryan.) 

SHIP  CHANDLERS— Stock  consists  of  those  things 
which  are  required  by  seamen  on  board  ship,  such  as  oiled 
clothing,  clothing,  parts  of  machinery,  lanterns,  oils,  heavy 
hardware,  ship's  tackle.  A  hard  burning  stock,  not  easy  to 
extinguish.     See  Seamen's  Outfitters.    '  -^    <    ' 

SHIP  FIRE  PREVENTION— It  ^;is  ^'i-ecommended  that 
vessels  be  required  to  be  equipped  with  spark-arresters  and 
that  their  funnels,  or  smokestacks,  be  covered  with  an  effi- 
cient metal  spark-arrester  (the  wire  mesh,  which  shall  not  be 
less  than  four  to  the  inch)  when  crossing  the  pierhead  line 
in  approaching  any  grain  elevator  or  any  pier.  The  owners 
of  such  vessels  should  be  required  to  protect  all  hatch  comb- 
ings, so  that  cargoes  of  cotton  or  naval  stores  shall  not  come 
in  contact  with  the  combings;  also  the  vessels  should  be  re- 
quired, while  loading  or  discharging  cargoes,  to  couple  their 
firehose  and  keep  the  same  ready  for  use  at  all  times.  See 
•  Fires  at  Sea. 

SHIP  YARDS  (Steel)— Machine-shop  hazards.  Fuel- 
oil  used  for  heating  furnaces,  also  portable  rivet  furnaces  on 
board  ships.  Fuel-oil  should  be  underground,  as  per  rules. 
Wood  framing,  staging  and  shoring  used  during  construc- 
tion are  bad  features.  Space  under  keels  should  be  kept  free 
of  inflammable  material.     (J.   H.   Ryan.) 

SHIRTWAIST  MANUFACTURING—  See  Garment 
Manufacturing. 

SHODDY  is  picked  rags,  shredded  and  torn  apart  by  pick- 
ers. It  may  be  wool  or  part  cotton.  If  all-wool  shoddy  is 
desired,  the  stock  is  "carbonized"  by  removing  the  cotton 
in  vats  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  chloride  of  aluminum. 
The  wool  is  then  washed  in  alkalis,  dried  in  high-temperature 
dryers,  ''picked,"  and  baled. 

SHODDY  AND  MUNGO  REFUSE  is  used  in  manu- 
facturing artificial  guano.  After  being  dried  and  pulverized, 
it  is  used  by  wall-paper  manufacturers  as  "flock." 

SHODDY  MILLS — Picking  and  carding  rooms  are  the 
most  hazardous.  The  shoddy  is  usually  conveyed  from  the 
pickers   to   the   baling   room   by   suction   ducts.      Only   steam 


SHOE    FACTORIES  VI  4M^ 

heat  and  electric  lights  should  be  used;  i  JPew  compahTes  write 
this  class.  -)  !  ?    '     :' 

SHOE  FACTORIES— The  upper  leathers  and  linings  are 
cut  either  by  hand  or  power  die-presses.  These  are  stitched 
or  cemented  together  and  attached  to  the  inner  sole.  The 
center  of  the  sole  is  "filled"  or  waterproofed,  and  the  outer 
sole  put  on  and  trimmed  smoothly.  In  the  finishing  depart- 
ment, the  sole  and  heel  are  sandpapered,  stained,  waxed  and 
polished  and  the  uppers  cleaned  and  polished.  Considerable 
rubber  cement  is  used.  Safety  pots  only  should  be  used  for 
rubber  cement  and  the  supply  of  cement  and  naphtha  kept 
outside  of  main  buildings.  Cement  with  a  binder  of  ground 
cork  is  usually  used  for  a  filler  for  soles  (between  the  inner 
and  middle  sole).  Edge-setter  machines,  which  sew  the  soles 
with  waxed  threads,  have  a  pot  of  wax  through  which  the 
thread  runs.  The  pot  is  usually  heated  by  steam  or  gas, 
steam  preferred.  Buff  wheels  for  polishing,  sandpapering 
machines,  and  heel-trimmers  should  have  blowers.  In  the 
lasting  department,  where  the  workers  hand-sew  the  uppers 
to  the  soles  of  turn-shoes,  gas  or  electric  stoves  are  used  for 
heating  the  hand-tools.  In  the  finishing  department,  benzine 
may  be  used  for  removing  spots.  A  very  important  hazard 
is  the  cutting-board  scrapings.  The  cutting  boards,  where 
leather  is  cut  either  by  hand  or  power,  are  dressed  with  a 
dressing  composed  mainly  of  glycerine,  linseed  oil  and  car- 
bolic acid.  They  are  dressed  (scraped  to  remove  ridges)  by 
hand.  The  boards  are  of  hardwood,  the  scrapings  are  in  a 
finely  divided  state,  and  when  mixed  with  the  dressing  are 
peculiarly  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion.  These  scrap- 
ings will  ignite  in  a  few  hours  and  are  considered  by  some 
manufacturers  to  be  more  hazardous  than  the  use  of  rubber 
cement  and  benzine. 

Box  Toes  are  stiffened  with  dextrine  and  glue.  Celluloid 
is  also  used  for  box  toes,  heel  coverings  and  counters.  The 
celluloid  is  usually  found  in  the  "lasting"  department.  Alco- 
hol and  acetone  are  used  to  soften  the  celloiloid.  Heels  are 
covered  with  celluloid,  for  ladies'  shoes,  the  celluloid  being 
softened  and  applied  by  presses,  trimmed,  cemented  and 
buffed. 


402  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Shoe  Tips,  after  being  perforated,  are  singed  over  a  gas 
flame  to  give  the  leather  a  clean  edge,  after  which  they  are 
dipped  in  dye  (sometimes  naplitha  dye)  for  the  desired  color. 

Waterproof  Compounds  for  Shoes — Trade  names  are  Vis- 
col,  Resisto,  Repello,  Anti-hude,  SoIeoil,i  Relyt  and  others. 
They  are  oily  substances  and  some  are  thinned  with  naphtha. 

Dip  Black  is  made  of  lamp-black  and  naphtha. 

Oilproof — Made  of  gelatine  and  carbolic  acid  dissolved  iri 
naphtha.  It  is  put  on  the  inner  part  of  outer  soles  to  prevent 
the  natural  oil  of  uppers  from  staining  the  lower  part.'  "''''-' i 

Boot  Dressing  for  uppers  is  made  of  lamp-black,'  gum' trag^'^ 
acanth  or  soap.  The  leather  is  soaked  in  water,  covered  with 
blacking  to  lay  the  nap,  dressed,  and  oiled  with  neat's-foot 
oil.  '•:> 

SHOEMAKERS'  FINDINGS  —  Miscellaneous  findings 
consist  of  leather,  buttons,  nails,  polishes,  brushes,  rubber 
cement,  stains.  If  mercantile  rating,  is  good,  stock  ;c2lii«>b6s 
written  at  a  profit.  v.:^^;j  rri 

SHOE  POLISH  may  contain  shellac,  nigrosine,  caustic 
soda,  potash,  aniline  colors,  salicylic  acid,  japan,  beeswax,  oil 
of  mirbane,  alcohol,  ammonia,  lamp-black,  glue,  benzine,  gum 
tragacanth,  canauher  and  candellia  waxes  and  borax.  Haz- 
ards of  direct  fire  heat  for  kettles,  oily  floors,  storage  of  raw 
materials.     A  poor  fire  record  class.     A  quick  burner. 

SHOES,  RETAIL—- Considered  very  desirable  insurance. 
Stocks  usually  give  a  salvage.  Inspectors  should  note  if  any 
work  is  being  done  on  premises. 

SHOOKS — Sets  of  boards  in  knock-down  shape,  used  ih' 
crate  or  box-making.  '^'^'  ';-    ^j -l<^i^?   'd^y'^^'-'' •'; 

SHOOTING  GALLERIES  usuall/Stctipy  gra3e'  flooVs  or 
basements.  Some  are  located  in  poor  sections  and  cater  to 
low  element.  Temporary  occupancy  with  makeshift  heating 
apparatus,  smoking,  oily  rags  for  wiping  guns,  gas  lights  in 
rows  under  targets,  and  untidiness  constitute  the  hazards. 

SHORING — Bracing  by  means  of  props. 

SHORT  CIRCUIT— A  contact  between  electrical  conduct-, 
ors  of  different  potentiality  without  the  intervention  of  re- 
sistance, so  that  for  an  instant  a  theoretically  unlimited  cui:- 


OnVi  i  SIAMESE   CONMECTIO»:i'^<2W I  4«3^ 

rent  flows  through  the  conductors  and  the  -centact  'point; 
See  Electrical  Terms.  ■  ;   f.i   ^n'    sfi-.; 

SHORT-RATE  TABLE— Used  in  writing  insurance  for  a 
term  less  than  one  year.  Also  applied  to  contracts  for  any 
term  when  the  assured  desires  cancellation '  of  a  policy.  See 
Pro   Rata.  >  r^'^rii 

SHRAPNEL,  in  anfimunition  manufacture,  is  tbmpostd^i 
three  major  parts,  the  cartridge,  the  projectile  and' the  fii^e. 

SHUTTERS— All  windows  should  be  protected  either  by 
standard  lock-joined  shutters  (similar  to  firedoor  construc- 
tion), or  iron  shutters  having  angle-iron  frames.  The  old 
style  "flat  bar"  iron  shutters  are  not  recommended  because 
they  buckle  under  intense  heat.  Most  engineers  advise  wire- 
glass  windows  in  ^'labeled"  hollow  metal  frames  instead  of 
shutters,  because  they  are  sure  to  be  in  place  when  a  fire 
starts.  Many  a  risk  protected  by  shutters  suffered  severe 
damage  because  they  were  open  and  could  not  be  closed  in 
time.     See  Window  Protection.  •    '=  ' 

SIAMESE  CONNECTION— Called  fire  department  con- 
nections. An  intake  pipe  located  outside  of  a  building,' with 
two  hose  coupling  connections.  In  sprinkler  systems  thfey 
are  connected  with  header  system  or  at  base  of  live  riser. 
In  standpipe  systems,  connect  with  riser.  In  both  instances 
have  flap-check  valve.  Connection  should  point  horizontally 
and  be  at  least  18  inches  above  the  sidewalk  in  order  that 
the  fire  department  can  make  a  quick  hose  connection  to 
steamer  or  hydrant.  Many  Siamese  connections  point  dowh^ 
ward  and  are  only  several  inches  above  the  sidewalk,  making 
it  almost  a  physical  impossibility  to  connect  the  ;hose«  - ^  Sea 
Standpipes.  ijvj   ^>fn«j>oa 

SIDE  CONSTRUCTION  in  fireproof  arches,  the  terra*' 
cotta  blocks  are  placed  on  the  sides.  *'{ 

SIDEWALK  STANDS  may  have  gasoline  torches  hyr 
light,  electric  wires  on  nails,  swingng  gas  brackets,  unsafe 
stove  for  heating  or  cooking. 

SIGN  PAINTING— Light  painting  hazard.  All  colors  are 
ih  small  lots  but  use  considerable  turpfentine,  and  some- 
times benzine  for  cleaning  brushes.  Usually  located  in  "run- 
down"  properties.     Not  a  very   desirable   class  on   account 


404  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  cheapness  of  work,  smoking,  oily  rags,  crowded  condi- 
tions and  making  wood  frames. 

SIGNS  (on  a  roof)  especially  if  of  wood,  are  great  handi- 
caps to  the  firemen.  All  signs  should  be  built  of  incombus^ 
tible  material  and  be  so  located  that  firemen  may  get  under 
them  so  as  to  gain  access  to  the  roof.  .ji/i    f*i! 

SILESITE— An   explosive   compound.  Ja[ll*?AHH8 

SILICA — An  oxygen  compound,  or  oxide  of  a  substance 
called  silicon. 

SILICATE  OF  SODA  consists  of  31  parts  sand,  freed  from 
iron,  and  53  parts  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda  melted  together. 
It  is  used  as  a  sizing  to  render  fabrics,  paper,  wood,  etc., 
fireproof,  also  used  as  a  mordant  for  aniline  colors.  Some- 
times called  soluble  glass. — Harris. 

SILICATES— See  Silicic  Acid. 

SILICIC  ACID — Sometimes  called  Silica.  Silicic  acid  unites 
with  potash  and  soda  and  lime-forming  bodies  called  sili- 
cates. 

SILICON — Not  a  metal,  but  a  very  hard  substance  re- 
sembling carbon  in  appearance. 

SILLS  for  fire  doors  (usually  concrete  or  iron  frames) 
should  be  raised  at  least  1^  inches  above  the  floor  and  set 
entirely  undf.r  the  fire-doors.  These  sills  prevent  water 
running  from  one   section  to  another. 

SILK  (ARTIFICIAL)  is  cellulose  fibre  artificially  pre- 
pared from  suitable  solutions  of  cellulose  by  forcing  the 
liquid  through  fine  orifices  and  coagulating  the  cellulose 
as  it  emerges  in  the  form  of  a  delicate  thread.  Artificial  silk 
resembles  true  silk  very  closely,  in  general  appearance  pos- 
sessing even  a  higher  lustre  than  the  latter.  It  is  not  as 
strong  or  durable  as  true  silk  and  its  strength  is  greatly 
lessened  when  wet  with  water.  One  variety  is  made  from 
wood-pulp.  :?iJAw: 

SILK  (BROAD)  is  woven  piece  silk.  It  is  wound,  reeled, 
woven  and  "quilled."  Weavers  use  benzine  for  removing 
spots. 

SILK  CONDITIONING— Practically  the  same  as  wool 
finishing. 

SILK  DYEING— Use  acetic,  sulphuric,  muriatic  and  tan- 


OVrTTl^W        SILK   PLUSH  405 

nic  acids,  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  bicarbonate  of  potash. 
Nitrate  of  iron  is  used  in  black  dyes.  Where  good^  "are 
sold  by  wei.^ht,  gambia  is  usually  used.  '■        •     '^r 

SILK  FINISHING— Process  consists  of  cutting,  rolling, 
calendering,  singeing,  rubbing,  straightening,  steaming,  clean- 
ing, spraying,  stretching.  .ix.di  '  ■: 

SILK  FINISHING  COMPOUND^A  secret  mixture,  said 
to  contain  potato  flour,  glycerine,  glue  and  soap.  Silk  is 
bleached  with  sulphide  of  soda. 

SILK  FLOSS— A  vegetable  fibre  from  the  Kapoc  trees 
of  the  Dutch  Indies,  used  in  mattresses,  etc. 

SILK-GUT — Derived  from  the  silk  worm;  similar  to  cat- 
gut; used  on  ends  of  fish  hooks. 

SILK  NECKTIES  are  sometimes  cut  on  boards  similar  to 
cutting  boards  in  shoe  factories  with  same  hazard,  also  singe- 
ing with  gas  flame 

,  SILK  NOILS — The  short  fibres  or  waste  silk  from  mills. 
"'Silk  plush — The*  cop  yarn  as  used  in  this  territory  is 
rcceive'd  in  skeins  from  the  mills  making  same,  and  is  woven 
by  the  local  mills  into  the  various  materials.  In  silk  and 
plush  works,  it  forms  the  strands  for  the  warp  and  filling 
for  the  backing  of  plush  goods.  The  plush  or  piling  is  made 
of  silk,  cotton  and  mohair  threads  woven  into  a  single  strand. 

Plush  is  made  on  a  weiaving  loom  similar  to  a  silk  loom 
with  the  exception  that  two  backings  are  used  between  which 
is  woven  the  silk  piling  for  the  plush.  As  the  woven  piece 
leaves  the  loom  a  rapidly  moving  knife  cuts  the  piling  which 
leaves  two  pieces  of  plush.     Sec  Plush. 

"Striking  out"  machines,  "tigers,"  "brushes"  are  then  used. 
These;  are  smilar  in  design  with  the  exception  that  the  wires 
forming  the  comb  are  heavier  for  the  first  process.  The  ma- 
chine consists  of  a  wooden  roller  spiked  with  wire  cotribs 
over  which  the  goods  pass.  They  are  employed  to  remove 
any  loose  piling  and  to  whip  it  up.  The  "tigers"  tear  out 
most  of  the  loose  stufif,  which  is  found  oh  the  floor.  :A(3:  this 
is  silk  the  hazard  is  light.     Very  little  lint  is  made.  1  '^' 

The  "Nellies"  is  next  employed.  This  machine  is  a  fouf- 
sided  wooden  frame  in   upright  position.     At   the   bottom,   a 


406  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

wooden  roller  with  light  wire  comb;  at  top  a  similar  roller 
with  bristles.  The  plush  is  wound  on  a  centre  roller,  the 
upper  roller  turned  by  hand.  As  it  turns  an  employee  "bat- 
ters" the  plush  to  open  up  the  piling.v  It"  theft  enters  a  dry 
room  as  the  plush  is  put  on  the  "Nellies"  wet. 

At  the  "striking  out"  machine,  the  plush  is  attached  to  a 
strip  of  cambric  which  is  first  drawn  over  the  rollers  and 
brushes  so  that  as  soon  as  the  machine  is  started  the  end  of 
the  plush  will  be  combed.  At  this  machine  the  material  is 
first  steamed  to  soften  the  texture. 

The  cambric  cloths  are  dried  in  a  dryer  similar  to  laun- 
dry drier.  oh    ij^j/rtvvi    -  i  uc/--/iUio 

Silk  is  woven  on  a  single  looml  f\?.i\  *<<>  j».f»(i**  rtf*  h^i>.n  ;iu v. 

Winders  and  spoolers  are  similar  to  those  in  knitting 
mills.  Dyeing  is  a  wet  process;  aniline  colors,  muriatic  acid, 
bichromate   of  potash  and   nitrate  of  soda  being  used. 

SILK  (RAW)-— Silk  as  it  comes  from  the  cocoon.  It  is 
spun  into  threads,  skeined,  wrapped  in  bundles  called  "books," 
in  colored  or  white  tissue  paper  (tissue  should  be  white,  as 
colored  paper. will  streak  the  silk  if  wet),, baled  and  wrapped 
in  matting  for  shipment.  It  is  tested  for  elasticity,  strength 
of  thread,  quantity  of  natural  gum,  weave  and  twist.  Moisture 
causes  mildew.  Water  and  smoke  do  not  seriously  affect  its 
quality  unless  the  smoke  contains  chemical  agents  which 
will  eat  the  fibre.  Mildew  and  discoloration  by  smoke  or 
water  can  be  removed  by  boiling,  as  in  any  event,  it  must 
be  boiled  in  water  to  remove  the  natural  gum  before  it 
can  be  dyed.  The  loss  would  be  practically  the  cost  of 
labor  for  re-boiling,  drying  and  re^reeling.  A  salvage  of 
about  75  per  cent,  may  be  expected  in  smoke  or  water  dam- 
age. It  does  not  support  combustion.  It  smolders,  but  burns 
only  upon  the  application  of  fire.   Considered  good  insurance. 

Silks  art  "loaded"  or  "weighted"  with  tin,  sugar  and 
other  materials.  It  is  claimed  to  make  the  silk  firmer  and 
cheaper  without  lowering  the  quality.  Silks  are  sometimes 
40  to  60  per  cent.  tin.  The  raw  silk  is  first  boiled  to  remove 
the  natural  gum  of  the  silk  worm.  About  4  ounces  in  weight 
is  lost  in  every  16  ounces  boiled.     It  is  "dyed  to  a  certain 


weight/'  according  to  tlie  purpose  i^oi*  which  the  silfe  13 --to 
be  used.  If  silk  is  dyed  to'  14  ounces  it  nleans  that  2  dtincif^^ 
of  the  lost  weight  is  made  up  in  loading  and  14  ounces  re- 
turned to  the  dealer  in  place  of  the  original  16.  The  tin, 
in  very  minute  particles,  is  added  during  the  dyeing  pto- 
cess.  "Weighting" — This  process  adds  on  an  average  of 
seven-tenths  of  a  pound  to  100  pounds  of  dyed  goods.       '  ^'1 

Silks  of  cheap  texture  may  contain  considerkble' cbttoft,* 
and  if  wet,  every  color  is  liable  to  run.  '  ' -    fc    !\»!-.'J<r 

SILK  SIZING— Fires  have  occurred '  m'- hati)1ithi''^'siifiig 
machines  from  static  electricity  generat6^'a{''^thi6'  ^ass' Wd^ 
or   guides   over   which   the   silk  passes,    ''''f    "■       <   '«•    -rM/irH 

SILK,  SPUN  or  "SCHAPPE"  SILK  is  the  silk  yarn  spun 
from  cocoon  waste  (fibres  from  pierced  cocoons)  or  from 
wa^te  made  by  throwsters.  Carded  and  spun  the  same  %s 
cotton  y^tn.    '  •I-' 

SILK  (THROWN)— Raw  or  dyed  silk  ^iF^'^ha^'l^n 
thrown  or  doubled  ready  for  the  weaver.  'It  has-  more' thkh^ 
one   strand.  hljo;}-^  ^fjnrf/:>\r.   •^nirm^iv-  -^'AU 

SILK  VELVET  generally  suffers  very'little  froriiwa^W^ 

damage  if  immediately  salvaged.  '      '!"'-'!>;    ?<  n>Tv^»»] 

SILK  (WASTE)  is  prepared  for  the  weavers  and  spinners 
as  follows:  It  is  put  through  "lappers,"  fillers  or  combers,** 
"dressing  frames,"  "spreaders,"  "catds,"  "pomers,"  "flossing 
tnachines."  The  poor  pieces  of  silk  are  picked  out  by  hand 
by  means  of  strong  electric  lights  under  glass  top  tables. 
Slow-speed  machinery  is  used  but  lint  covered  journals  re- 
sult. Steam  jets  are  used  to  keep  down  the  lint  and  prevent  a' 
dusty  atmosphere  in  the  work  rooms.  See  Noil6.'' ''"  ' -'^''^ 
SILK  (WATERPROOFING)— The  silk  is  fitst'V<^n^M 
with  dilute  mixture  of  sulphate  of  alumina;  theti  with  a  solu- 
tion of  soap  made  of  light-colored  resin  and  crystalized  car- 
bonate of  soda  and  water.  The  soap  thus  formed  is  sepa- 
rated by  adding  corhmou  salt.  The  soap  ife  dissolved  ill  bdH-^ 
ing  water  and  the  silk  rinsed  in  same.  ^'  •■  '-  '^  ^';.  '^  _'.  ** 
SILK  (WILD)  is  divided  commercially  into  three  classes: 
true  silk,  wild  silk  and  artificial  silk.  Wild  silk  is  the  fibre 
obtained  from  numerous  wild  vatieties  of  silk^pfo&emg 
moths.  ' 


408  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

SILK  YARN  AND  FLOSS  DYERS— Use  sulphuric,  nitric 
and  acetic  acids,  caustic  soda.  Hazards  of  dry  rooms,  silk 
pickers,  centrifugal  extractors. 

SILVERING— See  Mirror  Backing. 

SILVER-PLATED  WARE— Hazards  are  heavy  and  light 
machine  shop  work,  with  drop  hammers,  rollers,  hydraulic 
presses,  plating,  buffing,  pitch-heating,  forging,  soldering, 
burnishing,  engraving,  lacquering,  making  lead,  copper  and 
plaster  moulds. 

SILVERSMITHS— For  cementing  handles  on  sticks,  use 
canauba  wax  or  a  mixture  of  yellow  ochre  and  resin,  or  a 
mixture  of  resin,  pitch  and  lime.  Direct  fire  heat  used.  Platn 
ing— See  Goldsmiths.  >I JIB  "Siq^IAHOa"  to  VJl\J^Z  .^{Jlg 

SISAL— See  Fibres.        V  V.    ..    ,„.,;^^  ..    ......        ...a 

SKATE — A  term  used  in  the  insurance  business  when 
speaking  of  a  very  undesirable  risk. — Eugene  Eagles. 

SKATING  RINKS— If  built  of  frame  or  ordinary  brick 
constructon,  are  avoided  by  most  insurance  companies.  Heat- 
ing and  refrigerating  apparatus  should  be  in  cut-off  section.. 
They  are  "seasojn"  occupancies,  the  moral  hazard  is  an  im- 
portant  consideration. 

SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION— A  term  applying  to  a 
simple  framewoork  of  columns  and  beams  whose  efficiency  is; 
dependent  largely  on  the  existence  of  exterior  walls  and  parti- 
tions which  brace  the  building  and  hold  the  framework  in^ 
position,  just  as  the  utility  of  the  human  skeleton  is  depend- 
ent on  the  covering  of  sinews  and  muscles  that  hold  the 
component  parts  together.  On  the  other  hand,  the  light 
framework  of  an  ordinary  wire  cage  bound  intp  one  compact, 
unit  is  suggestive  of  an  inherent  strength  and  elastic  per- 
sistence that  renders  any  covering  an  incident  rather  than 
a   necessity.     (J.    F.    Kendall.)     See    Cage    Construction. 

SKEWBACK — The  inclined  stone  from  which  an  arch 
springs.  The  protecting  tile  at  the  web  to  the  lower  flange 
of  a  beam  or  girder. 

SKIDS-^Stock  of  a  susceptible  nature  should  be  raised  at 
least  six  inches  from  the  floor  so  as  to  prevent  water  damage. 

SKINS  are  obtained  from  calves,  sheep,  goats,  etc.  See 
Hides. 


SMOKE-HOUSES  409 

SKIRTING — Narrow  boards  nailed  along  a  wall. 

SKIVING — Removing  thin  shavings  from  the  flesh  side 
of  skins.     See  Hides. 

SLAG — The  dross  left  in  the  process  of  refining  metals. 
Also  a  compound  of  silica  with  metals,  lime  and  clay.      ii 

SLAG  ROOF — A  covering  of  slag  spread  over  tar  orf^-ji 
composition. 

SLATE  (ARTIFICIAL)  is  formed  of  clay  which  has  been 
hardened  under  pressure  and  heat.  ivmv/v-^'i  't/r,     .fi^il 

SLATE  ROOFS  are  a  source  of  danger  iaafiid^dfOSWKon 
account  of  pieces  dropping  on  the  firemen.      :>>x:im  bn;v  ,b^ii 

SLEEPER— A  strip  embedded  in  arches  of  fif^prbof  con- 
struction to  which  the  top  flooring  is  nailed. 

SLEEVE— See   Thimble. 

SLIP — The  water  lost  in  the  delivery  of  pump  due  to 
leakage  past  piston,  and  too  much  clearance  between  piston 
and  cylinder. 

SLIPPERS  (carpet  and  cloth)  are  usually  made  from  small 
pieces  or  ''tag  ends"  of  carpet  or  cloth.  The  inner  sole  is 
pasted  and  the  outer  sole  tacked  on  the  upper.  Cold  paste 
or  glue  is  used.  Shops  employ  cheap  labor  and  are  usually 
untidy.     A  class  avoided  by  most  underwriters. 

SLIPPER  TRIMMINGS— Skived  leather,  laces,  buckram 
and  felt  tops,  metal  ornaments,  embroidery.  Concerns 
usually  give  the  sewing  to  "home  workers,"  who  do  it  as 
piecework.  Shopwork  consists  of  making  lead  buttons,  metal 
working,  enameling  metal  parts,  cementing  linings  with  rub- 
ber cement,   sewing,   embroidering,   skiving  leather.  ,tr. 

SLOW  BURNING— See  Mill  Construction. 

SMALT — A  powdered  blue  glass,  colored  with  cobalt. 
Used  by  sign  painters. 

SMELTERS— See  Refiners,   ^ui    gtibl 

SMOKE-HOUSES  should  be' btiilt  of  incombustible  ma- 
terial with  a  vent  to  the  outer  air.  The  doors  should  be  at 
least  three-sixteenths  inch  iron,  with  angle-iron  reinforce- 
ments to  prevent  the  doors  from  buckling.  The  hanging  racks 
ahd  grating  over  the  fire  should  be  of  iron.  The  meat  is 
suspended  from  racks,  and  the  lower  grate  is  to  prevent  the 
meat   from  falling  into   the   fire.     Sills   should  be   raised  six 


410  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

inches.  If  possible  smoke-houses  should  be  in  a  detached 
structure.  Steam  jets  are  sometimes  used  to  extinguish 
fires  in  these  compartments.  The  fires  used  for  smoking  may- 
be of  sawdust,  beech  shavings,  hickory  wood,  charcoal.  These 
fires  are  either  built  directly  on  the  floor  or  are  placed  in 
earthenware  pots.  The  'entire  interior  of  the  smoke  com- 
partments becomes  in  time  thickly  coated  with  a  black, 
greasy  covering  from  the  grease-laden  fumes ^fro,in.-meats.  or 
fish.     See  Provisions.  'r'aii  T.ihnw  b'jMrWn«d 

SMOKELESS  POWDER  consists  of  nrtrb-ligriufti;  piiri- 
fied,  and  mixed  with  nitrates  other  than  nitrate  of  lead. 

SMOKEPIPES  must  not  be  nearer  than  18  inches  to  any 
lath-and-plaster  or  board  partition,  ceiling  or  any  woodwork, 
nor  shall  they  pass  through  any  wood  floor,  partition,  or 
roof.  Smokepipes  of  furnaces,  laundry  stoves,  large  cooking 
ranges,  etc.,  shall  be  not  less  than  18  inches  from  woodwork 
unless  guarded  by  shields;  then  not  less  than  9  inches. 

SMOKING— The  National  Board  records  for  1916  state 
that  careless  smokers  caused  a  total  loss  of  $4,505,963  in  the 
United  States.  In  Philadelphia,  413  fires  are  credited  to 
smokers.  It  should  be  made  a  penal  offense  to  throw  away 
a  burning  cigar,  cigarette  in  or  about  any  building,  structure, 
car,  or  where  it  may  ignite  any  inflammable  material.  In 
New  York  City,  a  specifi.c  charge  of  five  cents  per  $100 
per  annum  is  applied  to  sprinkler  risks,  and  is  removable 
upon  the  proper  posting  of  ''No  Smoking"  signs.  In  gar- 
ment manufacturing  establishments  a  charge  of  25  cents  is 
made,  at  present,  removable  only  after  a  series  of  unan- 
nounced inspections  covering  a  period  of  six  months.  Be- 
cause of  the  class  of  labor  employed  in  this  kind  of  business, 
this  requirement  becomes  necessary  to  absolutely  assure  the 
bureau  that  all  smoking  has  been  stopped.  In  garages  a 
charge  of  25  cents  is  applied,  which  is  added  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters, 
and  is  removable  upon  the  installation  of  proper  signs.  For 
theatres,  10  cents  is  added  if  smoking,  by  other  than  the 
actors  during  the  play,  is  allowed.  S.  T.  Skirrow,,  "Liye  Articles 
on  Special  Hazards,"  The  Weekly  Uuderwriter.)    See  Matches. 

SNAP   FASTENERS— A   machine-shop   hazard.     Machin- 


SOAP  FACTORIES  411 

ery  consists  of  die  presses,  drills,  lathes,  emery  wheels,  mill- 
ing machines,  blowpipefe  and  annealers,'in  ia'ddition  to  clean- 
ing with  acid  and  japanning. 

SNOWFALLS  (fire  danger  of)— In  Northern  climates, 
heavy  snowfalls  which  remain  on  the  roofs  of  houses  are 
apt  to  cause  the  roof  to  sag  and  the  consequent  cracking  of 
the  chimney.     Snow  should  be  cleaned  oflf  roofs. 

SNUFF  MANUFACTURING— The  lower  leaves  of  the 
tobacco  plant  come  to  the  factory  in  hogsheads.  After  age- 
ing in  the  factory  warehouse  for  a  few  years  the  leaf  is 
coarsely  cut  up,  "ordered,"  and' reprised  back  in  the  hogs- 
heads to  sweat  or  ferment.  It  is  then  ready  for  dessicatioh 
and  pulverizing.  It  is  toasted  in  a  furnace  dryer  or  toaster 
(which  is  an  iron  cylinder  revolving  in  a  breeching  of  brick, 
in  which  are  heating  fir^s),  or  shaken  in  a  series  of  trays 
in  a  room  heated  by  steam  to  a  high  temperature.  The 
toasted  flake  is  groiiiid  or  pulverized  in  machines  termed 
"mulls"  and  the  snuff  cleaned  in  a  bolting  reel  and  packed. 
The  principal  hazards  aire  toasting,  grinding  and  cleaning. 
Also  kettles  for  heating  water,  salt  and  licorice;  labeling  and 
lacquering  the  inside  of  boxes;  dry-rooms. — Ira  G.  Hoagland. 

SOAP  FACTORIES— The  hazards  of  the  usual  modern 
soap  factory  are  not  very  bad,  as  the  entire  process  is  by 
steam  heat.  The  rendering  of  fats  is  usually  carried  on  in 
a  special  plant  for  this  purpose.  There  may  be.  glycerine 
evaporators  (steam-heated),  stearic  acid  making,  refrigerat- 
ing machinery  for  cold-storage  rooms.  The  oils  used  are 
palm,  olive,  fish,  whale,  rape,  cottonseed,  cocoanut  and  corn. 
The  alkalis,  soda,  bicarbonate  of  soda,  soda  ash,  carbonate 
of  potash,  caustic  soda.  Soap  making  is  mainly  a  boiling 
process.  "Crutching"  is  mixing  the  soap  in  an  agitator  ket- 
tle with  coloring  matter,  perfumes,  etc.  When  soap  rises 
to  the  surface  of  the  kettle,  it  is  skimmed  off  and  run  into 
"frames"  to  cool.  A  "frame"  is  a  rectangular  metal  box  on 
wheels,  with  detachable  sides  and  ends.  'When  the  soap 
cools,  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  frames  are  rerhoved.  The 
slab  of  soap  is  cut  by  vertical  wires  protruding  through  a 
flat  bed  on  which  is  placed  the  soap.     See  Shaving  Soap. 

SOAP   POWDER  and  Dressings   for  Textile   Workers— 


412  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Manufacturers  use  lactic  acid,  corn-syrup,  gluten,  tallow,  gel- 
atine, sugar,  boric  acid,  formic  acid,  carbon  tetra-chloride, 
aqua  ammonia,  chalk.  Hazard  that  of  soap  factory,  includ- 
ing chemical  laboratory  with  usual  chemicals,  such  as  ether, 
ethyl  alcohol,  tin-chloride,  nitrate  of  soda,  and  caustic  soda 
in  small  bottles.  Other  soap  powders  are  generally  made 
from  absolutely  dry  chip  soaps,  ground  into  a  fine  powder. 
,  SODA — The  general  term  applied  to  compounds  of  sodium. 
Sodium  is  metalic  in  nature.  Usually  found  in  areas  resem- 
bling frozen  lakes  that  consist  of  carbonate  of  soda  in  pow- 
der or  crystals.  Has  an  affinity  for  oxygen  and  should  be 
kept  in  air  and  water-tight  receptacles,  because  the  least 
moisture  may  start  a  blaze.  Soda  is  oxide  of  sodium.  See 
Sodium. 

SODA  ASH— See  Sodic  Carbonate. 

SODA  WATER  SIPHONS  are  sometimes  charged  up  to 
160  pounds  pressure  and  have  been  known  to  explode  with 
great  violence. 

SODIUM  is  made  from  soda.  It  is  not  inflammable,  but 
its  presence  increases  the  intensity  of  a  fire  by  the  evolu- 
tion of  oxygen.     When  wet,  it  is  combustible. 

SODIUM  BISULPHIDE— A  chemical  not  dangerous  in 
itself,  but  if  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  chlorate  of 
sodium  will  cause  a  fire.  Should  be  stored  outside  of  main 
building  in  same  manner  as  chlorates  or  other  oxygen  agents. 

SODIUM  CARBONATE— Called  soda-ash  and  is  used  for 
bleaching  cotton  goods,  scouring  wool,  and  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  soap. 

SODIUM  CHLORATE— Dangerous  on  account  of  its 
capacity   for   liberating  oxygen. 

SODIUM  CHLORIDE— Common  salt. 

SODIUM  HYDRATE— Called  caustic  soda,  and  is  used 
in  soap  making. 

SODIUM  NITRATE— A  yellowish  white  salt,  and  a  great 
oxidizer.     When  mixed  with  organic  matter  will  ignite. 

SODIUM  NITRATE  CRYSTALS  (in  litharge  manufac- 
turing) are  dried  in  a  wooden,  rotary,  cylindrical  dryer,  hav- 
ing open  ends,  driven  by  gearing  and  cogwheels,  and  heated 


SOUND    VALUE  413 

by  hot  air.  Fires  have  started  at  the  greasy  driving-gears 
due  to  friction.     See  Litharge. 

SODIUM  PEROXIDE— A  white  or  yellow  powder.^  A 
strong  oxidizer.  When  in  contact  with  organic  matter  will 
cause  fire. 

SODIUM  SULPHIDE— Used  in  tanning  leather. 

SODIUM  TUNGSTATE— See  Fire-Resistive  Solutions. 

SOFFIT — The  lower  or  underneath  surface  of  an  arch. 

SOFT  WOODS  are  those  from  coniferous  or  needle-leaved 
trees,  such  as  pine,  spruce  and  cedar.  See  Coniferous  Woods. 
See  Hard  Woods. 

SOLDER — Usually  composed  of  lead  and  zinc.    ^  r/^qqp 

SOLE  TENANT  RISK— One  having  but  one  tenant. '  An 
allowance  is  usually  given  in  the  rate  for  this  feature. 

SOLIDIFIED  ALCOHOL  consists  of  wood  alcohol  which 
has  been  colloided  to  a  soft  semi-transparent  mass;  made  by 
colloiding  with  nitro-cellulose  or  soap.  Gives  off  inflammable 
vapors  at  about  50  deg.   F.     See  Alcohol. 

SOLUBLE  BLUE— Apt  to  cause  fires  in  color  works 
through  friction  and  spontaneous  combustion.     See  Chromes. 

SOLUBLE  COTTON— See  Nitrocellulose. 

SOLUBLE  GLASS— Silicate  of  soda. 

SOLVENTINE— Used  as  a  varnish.  Has  a  low  flash  and 
fire  test.  Composed  of  low-grade  varnish,  linseed  oil,  benzine 
or  its  equivalent.  Cotton  waste,  saturated  with  it,  will  ig- 
nite spontaneously.  ■nnn:^  \);u 

SOLVENTS  are  likely  to  include  inflammable  liquids  con- 
taining such  substances  as  acetone,  ether  or  naphtha. 

SOOT — Mostly  carbon.  It  is  made  up  of  little  particles 
which  are  thrown  off  from  the  burning  wood  and  lodge  on 
the  chimney  sides. 

SOUND  VALUE— The  actual  value  at  the  time  of  fire 
after  depreciation  has  been  deducted.  The  terms  "market 
value,"  "cost  price,"  etc.,  as  sometimes  used,  are  misleading. 

SOURCE  OF  SUPPLY— See  Water  Mains. 

SPALL — To  chip  or  flake  off.  Stone  or  brick,  or  other 
masonry  walls  spall  after  being  heated  and  subjected  to 
hose  streams.     See  Platforms.  ^^^^^.   ,1^,.^^,,^^^ 


4i'+  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

SPAN — The  space  between  the  iron  beams,  as  for  instance, 
the  terra-cotta  arches  are  spanned  5  feet  on  centers.' 

SPANISH  BLACK  or  cork  black  is  made  from,  ftll^^cofn- 
bustion  gases  of  burning  cork.  .vfbtxo  v 

SPANISH  MOSS— Used  in  upholstering;  willignlt^  spon- 
taneously. "''''\::'  ^'"^-'  ^^ 

SPANISH  WHITIS— Same  as  whiting.      -  ' 

SPARK  ARRESTER— Used  on  foundry  cui)plas,thimneys, 
to  catch  sparks  and  prevent  them  from  flying  and  igniting 
shingle  roofs.  Made  of  wire  netting  and  built  like  a  cage 
over  the  top  of  the  stack. 

SPECIAL  BUILDING  SIGNAL  is  a  manual  device  requir- 
ing some  one  to  pull  the  lever  which  sends  in  the  alarm.  See 
Manual  Alarm.     See  Alarm. 

SPECIAL  FORMS  OF  INSURANCE— See  Use  and  occu- 
pancy;  also   Leases  and   Profit   Insurance,   Improvements. 

SPECIAL    HAZARDS^  are    the    fire    dangers    incident    to 
manufacturing  plants  in  their  pfocess  bf'/wprk^^^^ 
also  Risk.  ■-  >=  ^    ■• .      u  ...■::      •     . 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OR  DENSITY  plays  an  important' 
part  in  the  engineering  end  of  fire  insurance,  in  that  it  points 
out  the  connection  between  weight  and  bulk.  In  other  words, 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  is  its  weight  in  proportion 
to  the  same  bulk  of  water.  Example:  A  bottle  which  holds 
lOOQ  grains  of  water  will  only  hold  830  grains  of  spirits  of 
wine,  which  shows  the  comparison  of  weight  under  the 
same  bulk.  The  density  of  the  liquids  containing  alcohol  is 
used  by  the  excise  to  determine  the  amount  of  alcohol  they 
contain. — W.  D.   Grier. 

SPECIFIC  RATES— Those  properties  subject  fo  a' speci^f 
rate  by  a  central  rating  board  or  bureau  by  reason  of  ah  occu- 
pancy more  hazardous  than  called  for  under  a  minimum  rat- 
ing.    See  Rates. 

SPECIFIC  WEIGHTS— See  Specific  Gravity. 

SPERMACETI— A  solid  wax  taken  from  the  mixture  |of 
solid  and  liquid  matter  which  occurs  in  the  head  of  the  spefm 
whale.     Melts  110  to  120  deg.  ¥. 

SPHINCTER  HOSE— Rubber  or  other  hose  wound  with 


SPONTANEOUS   COMBUSTION  +15 

wire.  Prevents  wear  and  tear  and  gives  added  strength  to 
hose. 

SPICE  MILLS — The  principal  hazard  is  grinding.  If  the 
spices  are  ground  w^et,  the  hazard  is  mild.  If  they  are  ground 
dry,  the  grinder  should  be  in  a  separate  fireproof  room  and  be 
equipped  with  magnets.  Burr  mills  are  often  used.  Addi- 
tional hazards  are  found  at  the  sifters,  bolters,  and  dryers 
where  considerable  dust  abounds.  Considered  by  most  com- 
panies as  an  unprofitable  class  of  insurance. 

SPINDLE  CARVER— A  small  cutter  rotated  at  the  end  of 
a  horizontal  spindle.  .  ,  ,  x  \      « 

SPIRITS  OF  HARTSHORN— See  Ammohia.*''     '^^ 

SPIRITS    OF    NITROUS    ETHER— See    Ethyl    Nitric. 

SPIRITS  OF  TURPENTINE— See  Turpentine. 

SPONGES — The  best  are  grown  in  salt  water  where  no 
sandy  bottom  abounds  as  the  sand  smothers  the  growing 
sponge.  Sponges,  when  brought  to  the  surface  are  black  and 
slimy  and  filled  with  water  and  animal  matter  called  "gurry." 
Several  days  are  required  for  the  gurry  to  run  ofif  when  the 
sponges  are  dead.  They  are  squeezed  out  with  the  hands 
and  strung  on  lengths  of  coarse  twine.  Sponges,  contrary  to 
general  belief,  suffer  a.  very  severe  water  damage,  and  in- 
surance should  be  written  carefully. 

SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION— When  a  house  is  be- 
ing redecorated,  the  painters  frequently  use  a  wood  polish 
containing  raw  linseed  oil  and  turpentine.  In  one  instance, 
a  piece  of  waste  with  this  oil  was  found  smoldering  in  a 
workman's  pocket  and  he  did  not  know  it  until  his  attention 
was  called  to  it.  Polishing  cloths  about  the  home  should 
not  be  placed  in  drawers  of  cupboards,  but  hung  where  air 
can  circulate  around  them.  Oily  floors  left  when  soap  man- 
ufacturers, furriers  and  machine  shops  vacate  buildings  have 
caused  spontaneous  combustion  when  a  new  tenant  has  laid 
new  floor  over  the  oily  one.  Sawdust  in  ice  houses  and  cold 
storage  plants  has  been  known  to  ignite  spontaneously  when 
moist.  Soft  coal  piled  in  bulk  and  dampened  will  ignite  spon- 
taneously. See  Vegetable  Oils.  Oily  Waste  Cans.— (See 
illustration  on  page  416.)  •.-  v^a,»    .\  . -vV\ 

SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  POINT— The  point  or 


m 


INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


temperature  at  which  gases,  vapors  or  solids  will  take  fire  of 
their  own  accord  without  being  brought  into  contact  with 
burning  or  incandescent  substances.     See  Flash  Point. 

SPORTING  GOODS— Hazards  of  repair  shops  with  var- 
nishing, hand  woodworking,  stock  of  gun-powder  and  car- 
tridges, rubber  cement,  calcium  carbide,  automobile  special- 
ties, photo  supplies. 


Combust/on  ,^ 

,    /s  SrouaAt 
abcvtbva. 
Cne/r)  fca./  A  ct/orj 

I  ^  fro  du  e  it  on  of  htaCt 

li  a.  »i««-^#»«</uct5>r  of 
^^  Meat        -    I      .  . 

^  few  ianitlcn  fK>int 

i^ff^AOT^-  IF  rH/3  CAN 

^^^^^  J      is    USepfCR   WASTiS 

the  abore    is  n€Kt 


l^srAL  CAN  en  Jys, 
Copyright.    1915.   G.   A.   Ins.   Co. 


OROlNAn^MBTTALASH  CAN 


SPRINKLER   EQUIPMENT 


417 


SPREADING — A  spreader  machine  is  a  skeleton  table-like 
structure  made  up  with  steam  coils  or  steam-heated  plates. 
At  the  feed  end  of  the  spreader  is  located  a  roll,  above  which 
and  parallel  to  it,  is  set  a  knife-like  piece  of  metal,  fitted  with 
proper  adjustment  device  so  that  it  may  be  set  a  greater  or 
less  distance  from  the  roll.  There  is  also  provision  for  a 
roll  of  fabric  at  the  feed  end  and  a  reeling  up  device  at  the 
other  end  of  the  machine.     See  Static  Electricity. 

SPRINGER— The  lowest  stone  of  an  arch. 

SPRINGS — A  name  given  by  manufacturers  to  rubber 
shoddy. 

SPRINKLER  EQUIPMENT  (AUTOMATIC)  —  Briefly 
speaking,    consists   of   iron    piping   filled   with   water   or   air, 


rhoto  by  Paul  Thompson. 

Distribution    of    Water    by    Automatic    Sprinkler. 

securely  supported  immediately  beneath  the  floors,  i.e.  the 
ceilings.  At  intervals  of  eight  to  ten  feet  are  attached  fusi- 
ble plugs  called  sprinkler-heads  having  deflectors  designed  to 


4W  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Spray  water  over  the  area  desired.  In  the  ordinary  sprinkler 
a  solder  having  a  melting  point  of  about  160  deg.  F.  is  em- 
ployed (solder  of  bismuth,  tin,  lead  and  cadmium).  The 
melting  of  this  solder  releases  the  disc  from  the  valve-seat 
and  the  water  is  forced  out  under  pressure  through  the  orifice 
formerly  closed  by  the  valve-seat.  The  deflector  causes  the 
water  to  spray  in  all  directions  like  rain  thus  effectually  wet- 
ting anything  within  the  area  which  the  sprinklers  arc  de- 
signed to  cover. 

Among  the  important  questions  to  be  considered  after  the 
design  and  probable  occupancy  has  been  considered  is  that 
of  heating.  It  should  be  definitely  determined  that  all  por- 
tions of  the  building  will  be  heated  to  about  40  6tg.  F.  dur- 
ing the  winter.  Unfortunately  water  will  freeze  at  32  deg.  F. 
even  when  in  pipes,  a  condition  that  some  of  those  planning 
equipments  must  realize  if  a  wet-pipe  system  of  sprinklers  is 
under  consideration. 

The  latter  system  is  preferable  for  the  following  reasons:  It 
costs  less  to  install  and  to  maintain  and  results  in  a  slightly 
greater  reduction  in  insurance  rates.  By  way  of  illustration: 
A  complete  wet-pipe  system  of  1,000  sprinklers  including 
tanks  and  alarm  service  will  cost  about  $5,000,  maintenance 
cost  about  $300  per  annum,  insurance  reduction  approximately 
60  to  75  per  cent.,  depending  upon  the  grading  of  the  equip- 
ment. The  same  equipment,  but  dry-pipe  system,  including 
tanks  and  alarm  service,  will  cost  approximately  $16,000, 
maintenance  cost  about  $450  per  annum,  insurance  reduction 
approximately  50  to  60  per  cent.,  depending  upon  grading  of 
the  equipment.  It  may  also  be  said  that  the  dry-pipe  system, 
being  under  the  control  of  one  or  more  automatic  valves  un- 
der constantly  maintained  air  pressure  of  forty  pounds  in  the 
pipe  system,  is  somewhat  complicated  and  with  its  auxilary 
attachments  calls  for  much  more  care  than  the  wet  system. 
— E.  P.  Boone.  Author's  Note:  The  figures  given  above  are 
pre-war  figures.  See  Alarm,  Central  Station,  Coal  Shortage, 
Curtain  Boards,  Dry  Pipe  Sprinklers,  Dead  Riser,  Gate  Valve, 
Gravity  Supply,  Hoops,  Live  Riser,  Open  Sprinklers,  Pres-" 
sure.  Sprinkler  and  Heating  System,  Sypho-chemical  Sprink- 
lers, Tables,  Valves,  Staggered,  Tell-tales. 


.'     »  SPRINKLERS  oa^iaWl  419 

SPRINKLERS  are  made  to  fuse  as  follows: 

Without  color  except  that  of  its  composition,  160  deg.  F. 

Black-corro-proof  to  prevent  corrosion,  160  deg.  F. 

White  color,  212  deg.  F.     Blue,  286  deg.  F.  Red,  360  deg.  F. 

SPRINKLERS,  QUESTIONABLE  OCCUPANCIES— 
Automatic  sprinklers  in  the  following  occupancies  may  not  be 
expected  to  control  a  fire  if  it  has  a  good  start  owing  to  the 
construction,  processes  involved,  and  the  hazardous  mate- 
rials: Celluloid  workers,  cereal  mills,  cooperage  plants,  cork 
factories,  cotton  warehouses,  grain  elevators,  flour  mills,  fur- 
niture factories,  match  factories,  oilcloth  works,  rubber 
works,  saw  mills,  starch  factories,  varnish  works,  window- 
shade  factories,    rough    woodworking    and    sugar    refineries. 


y^^^BBBI^^8HPJ. 


IMw 

■       \ 

Auluinatic   Sprinkler   Head   in    Operation. 

aluminum  powder  factories,  chemical  risks  using  substances 
which  might  explode  or  ignite  from  the  application  of  water, 
such  as  sodium.  It  can  be  readily  seen  that  fires  of  a  flash 
nature  which  inight  be  expected  in  many  of  the  above  lines» 
or  those  where  dust  explosions  are  immirrent,  could  spread 
a  fire  throughout  an  entire  floor  before  sufficient  heat  would 
be  confined  in  one  place  to  operate  a  sprinkler  head,  or  which 
might  disrupt  the  sprinkler  system. 


420;  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

SPRINKLERED  RISKS  IN  ZERO  WEATHER— Where 

sprinkler  equipment  has  been  drained  or  is  known  to  be 
frozen,  the  following  precautions  should  be  exercised 
in  placing  the  equipment  in  commission  in  order  to  avoid 
water  damage  and  prolonged  interruption  of  protection. 

In  order  to  prevent  unnecessary  annoyance  and  delay,  it 
is  suggested  the  making  of  repairs  be  left  with  the  company 
that  installed  the  equipment. 

Have  equipment  examined  by  competent  party,  pipe  system 
including  filling  and  steam  pipes  for  tanks  tested  for  ice  and 
leaks,  and  repairs  effected  where  necessary. 

Open  all  drain  valves  and  remove  plugs  at  low  points  to 
insure  the  pipe  system  being  properly  drained. 

Close  all  controlling  valves  and  fill  tanks  slowly  one  at  a 
time. 

Turn  water  slowly  into  system  one  floor  at  a  time,  after 
having  closed  all  drain  valves  and  replaced  plugs  at  low 
points. 

The  following  day  if  no  leaks  develop,  place  air  on  pres- 
sure tanks  and  notify  central  station  company  where  such 
service  obtains  to  restore  alarm  service. 

Note. — The  above  precautions  apply  to  both  wet  and  dry 
pipe  sprinkler  systems. 

Where  sprinklers  are  in  a  pendant  position  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  remove  each  sprinkler  so  located  in  order  to  test  for 
ice,  and  in  doing  this  extra  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  in- 
jure the  sprinklers.  Those  injured  must  be  replaced  with 
new  sprinklers  before  placing  equipment  in  commission.  (N. 
Y.  Fire  Ins.  Exchange.) 

Upon  the  approach  of  winter,  test  all  post  indicator  valves 
for  proper  drainage  to  prevent  freezing.  Open  all  valves  that 
should  be  opened  and  ascertain  if  all  pipes  are  free  from 
sediment  and  ready  for  instant  use.  Box  in  and  pack  all  ex- 
posed piping,  both  water  and  steam,  the  latter  so  that  there 
will  be  sufficient  heat  for  building  and  for  tank  coils.  Have 
extra  sprinkler  heads  on  hand  for  emergency. 

Sprinklers  (Dry-Pipe)  should  be  controlled  all  year  on 
approved  dry-pipe  valves  rather  than  being  "wet  system" 
for  eight   months   and  "dry  system"  for  four  months.      In 


SPRINKLER   LEAKAGE  421 

changing  from  a  dry  system  to  a  wet  system  there  is  an  in- 
creased amount  of  sediment  deposited  in  the  pipes.  The 
pipes  are  not  always  drained  when  cold  Weather  sets  in,  and 
the  dry  valve  is  not  always  properly  adjusted.  All  pipes 
should  be  pitched  to  properly  drain  so  that  water  could  not 
collect  in  them  and  freeze. 

Cold  Weather  Lines,  i.  e.,  branch  lines  in  driveways,  halU 
ways,  elevator  shafts,  coal  holes  and  other  unheated  portions 
which  arc  shut  off  during  winter  should  be  thoroughly  ex- 
amined in  the  spring  to  detect  frozen  or  bursted  pipes  and 
imperfect  valves.  Upon  the  approach  of  warm  weather  the 
valves  should  be  kept  open. 

SPRINKLER  EQUIPMENT  ON  VESSELS— Statistics 
furnished  by  shipowners  show  that  approximately  20  per  cent, 
of  the  ocean  travel  hazard  is  caused  by  fire  or  explosion.  A 
large  percentage  of  these  losses  could  be  overcome  by  the 
installation  of  an  adequate  automatic  fire-fighting  system. 
Sec  Fires  at  Sea;  also  Ship  Fire  Prevention. 

SPRINKLER  FAILURES  are  due  to  allowing  steam  pres- 
sure to  run  down  below  minimum  pressure  over  Sundays 
and  holidays,  inadequate  electric  power  to  drive  fire  pumps, 
shutting  off  water  and  then  delaying  repair  work.  Notify  the 
insurance  company  when  it  is  necessary  to  shut  off  water. 
When  extensive  repairs  are  necessary,  provide  additional  fire 
pails,  bcse  and  watchmen.  Put  red  tag  (as  used  by  Factory 
Mutuals)  on  closed  valves. 

Fires  quite  often  occur  in  unsprinklered  portions,  even 
those  parts  where  it  seems  impossible  for  a  fire  to  originate, 
or  just  after  the  equipment  has  been  shut  off  or  before  its 
installation  is  complete. 

SPRINKLER  LEAKAGE  is  protection  against  loss  or 
damage  due  to  accidental  discharge  of  water  from  the  sprink- 
ler system  or  tanks  supplying  same  (including  accident 
caused  by  freezing).  Does  not  protect  against  loss  due  to 
discharge  of  water  when  fire  occurs  nor  for  collapse  of 
building  unless  the  latter  is  caused  by  accidental  leakage  of 
water  from  automatic  sprinkler  system  or  the  tanks  supply- 
ing it.  Penalties  are  imposed  in  rating  for  absence  of  floor 
control  valves,   lack  of  proper   watchman   service   and    (or) 


422  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

alarm  service,  wood  tanks  on  wood  trestle,  tanks  with  flat 
hoops,  concealed  spaces  and  furring. 

Sprinkler  leakage.-  "It  is  claimed  from  experience  that  about 
50  per  cent,  of  the  losses  are  caused  by  the  sprinkler  head 
itself,  30  per  cent,  of  the  losses  being  attributed  to  piping, 
including  freeze-ups,  and  the  remaining  20  per  cent,  arise 
frorft  the  occasional,  but  very  severe  losses  which  occur  in 
connection  with  the  collapse  of  the  tanks  or  the  eruption  of 
a  header  or  equivalent  full  volume  of  water  supply.  The  main 
thing  is  "what  device  have  they  on  system  to  notify  those  in 
charge  in  case  of  a  break  in  order  to  shut  off  the  supply?" 
(N.  F.  P.  A.  Vol.  10,  1916.) 

Sprinkler  Leakage — Some  of  the  causes  of  tank  collapse, 
preciptations  and  leakage  for  which  the  inspector  should 
constantly  look,  are  as  follows: 

1.  Freezing;  excessive  pressure,  settlement  of  tanks  On 
risers,  belts  unguarded,  near  pipes;  wearing  out  of  packing 
on  valves;  defective  castings;  overloading  floors;  light  cast- 
ings and  heavy  pressure;  neglect  to  drain  and  put  on  dry 
pipe  valves;  alternating  systems  in  exposed  places  during 
winter  months,  which,  if  undiscovered,  would  result  in  the 
bursting  of  pipes. 

2.  Sun's  rays  through  skylight;  pendant  heads  on  dry  sys- 
tems in  extremely  cold  climates  from  condensation  of  moist- 
ure; extraordinary  heat  and  low-degree  heads;  belts  un- 
guarded near  heads;  chemical  action  on  pipes  and  heads; 
disintegration  of  fusing  material  on  old  heads;  carelessness 
of  employees  handling  stock,  hanging  or  leaning  things  on 
or  against  pipes;  leaving  open  in  cold  weather  windows, 
doors,  ventilators,  hatchways,  monitors  and  other  openings, 
which,  if  undiscovered,  would  result  in  the  discharge  of 
heads. 

3.  Use  of  timber,  which,  if  exposed,  is  unduly  subject  to 
rot;  filling  tanks  before  concrete  or  masonry  is  thoroughly 
dried  to  the  core;  neglect  of  tanks  and  supports,  resulting  in 
rot,  rust,  corrosion  and  decay;  defects  in  casting  or  rolling  of 
metal  supports;  constant  vibration  or  jarring  of  building;  in- 
adequate supports;  inadequate  size  of  bearing  plates  under 
tank  supports;  crumbling  of  cement  or  mortar;  flat  hoops; 


SPRINKLER     RULES    OF    N.     F.     P.    A.  423 

faulty  construction;  heating  water  in  tanks  to  too  high  tem- 
perature; using  old  buildings  without  consulting  architects 
as  to  carrying  strength  and  builders  as  to  condition  of  build- 
ing; overloading  floors,  which  if  undiscovered  would  result 
in  the  collapse  of  tanks. 

4.  Carelessness  in  maintenance  of  system  (uninstructed  em- 
ployees, especially  new  ones;  alarms  out  of  order;  no  alarms 
on  system);  watchman  not  visiting  all  parts  of  plant;  con- 
cealed spaces  in  which  sprinklers  are  located  not  known  or 
indicated  in  some  manner,  which,  if  undiscovered,  would  re- 
sult in  excessive  losses.— Thos.  M.  Donaldson  in  "Weekly 
Underwriter." 

SPRINKLER  AND  HEATING  (COMBINATION)  SYS- 
TEMS— The  most  interestin'g  feature  of  this  system  is  the 
method  used  for  preventing  the  operation  of  the  sprinkler 
heads  from  the  heat  of  the  water.  The  hot  water  has  an 
average  temperature  of  180-200  deg.  F.  The  maximum  tem- 
perature used  being  about  245  deg.  F.  The  melting  point 
of  ordinary  sprinklers  is  160  deg.  F.  In  order  to  prevent  the 
overheating  of  the  sprinklers,  they  are  placed  on  short  off- 
sets in  which  the  water  does  not  circulate.  At  first  straight 
off-sets  were  used,  but  at  present  a  curved  pipe  ^-inch 
diameter  and  18  to  20  inches  long  is  used. — Gorham  Dana. 

SPRINKLERS,  OPEN  TYPE— These  are  used  to  protect 
the  windows  facing  serious  exposures  and  are  not  automatic 
in  action  (having  no  seal  at  the  valve  outlet).  They  depend 
upon  human  hands  to  operate  a  valve  at  the  base  of  the 
riser  through  which  water  is  conveyed  to  the  sprinkler  heads. 
They  are  also  used  at  eaves  and  cornices  and  are  sometimes 
called  eave  and  cornice-sprinklers. 

SPRINKLER  RULES  OF  THE  N.  F.  P.  A.— Clear  Space 
Below  Sprinklers — Full  effective  action  of  sprinklers  requires 
about  24  inches  wholly  clear  space  below  the  sprinklers,  so 
that  they  may  form  an  unbroken  spray  blanket  from  sprink- 
ler to  sprinkler  and  sides  of  room.  Any  stock  piles,  racks 
or  other  obstructions  interfering  with  such  action  are  not 
permissible.  Sprinkler  piping  should  not  be  used  for  the 
support  of  stock,  clothing,  etc. 

Position  of  Sprinkler — Shall  be  located  in  an  upright  po- 


424  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

sition.  When  construction  or  occupancy  of  a  room  or  en- 
closure makes  it  preferable,  permission  may  be  given,  except 
on  dry-pipe  systems,  to  locate  sprinklers  in  a  pendant  posi- 
tion. 

Position  of  Deflectors — Sprinkler  deflectors  shall  be  par- 
allel to  ceilings,  roofs  or  the  incline  of  stairs,  but  when  in- 
stalled in  the  peak  of  a  pitched  roof  they  shall  be  horizontal. 
Distance  of  deflectors  from  ceilings  of  mill  or  other  smooth 
construction,  or  bottom  of  joists  of  open  joist  construction, 
shall  be  not  less  than  3  inches  nor  more  than  10  inches;  6  to 
8  inches  is  the  best  distance  with  average  pressure  and  pres- 
ent types  of  sprinklers.  Note  particularly  that  the  rule  for 
distance  refers  to  the   deflector  of  the  sprinkler. 

In  the  case  of  fire-resistive  buildings,  the  distance  between 
deflectors  and  ceilings  may  be  increased  where  conditions 
warrant;  i.  e.,  under  panel  ceilings.  In  semi-mill  or  other 
unusual  construction,  consult  the  inspection  department  hav- 
ing jurisdiction. 

Detailed  Locations — Sprinklers  shall  be  placed  throughout 
premises,  including  basement  and  lofts,  under  stairs,  inside 
elevator  wells,  in  belt,  cable,  pipe,  gear  and  pulley  boxes 
inside  small  enclosures  such  as  drying  and  heating  boxes, 
tenter  and  dry-room  enclosures,  chutes,  conveyor  trunks  and 
all  cupboards  and  closets  unless  they  have  tops  entirely  open, 
and  are  so  located  that  sprinklers  can  properly  spray  therein. 
Sprinklers  are  not  to  be  omitted  in  any  room  merely  be- 
cause it  is  damp  wet  or  of  fire-resistive  construction. 

Spacing  of  Automatic  Sprinklers — Distance  from  Walls — 
The  distance  from  wall  or  partition  to  first  sprinkler  shall  not 
exceed  one  half  the  allowable  distance  between  sprinklers 
in  the  same  direction.  Additional  sprinklers  may  also  be 
required  in  the  narrow  pockets  formed  by  bay  timbers  or 
beams  and  wall. 

Partitions — A  line  of  sprinklers  should  be  run  on  each  side 
of  partition.  Cutting  holes  through  a  partition  to  allow 
sprinklers  on  one  side  thereof  to  distribute  water  to  the  other 
side  is  not  effectual.  This  rule  applies  to  both  solid  and  slat- 
ted partitions. 

Where  no  inflammable  material  is  stored  close  to  the  ceil- 


SPRINKLER    RULES    OF    N.    P.    P.    A.  42S 

ing,  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction  may  waive 
the  requirement  for  providing  extra  sprinklers  in  narrow- 
pockets  formed  by  beams  and  partitions  where  the  construc- 
tion is  entirely  fire-resistive,  including  the  partitions. 

MILL  CONSTRUCTION— Under  mill  ceiling  (smooth 
solid  plank  and  timber  construction,  ^5  to  12-foot  bays)  one 
line  of  sprinklers  should  be  placed  in  center  of  each  bay  and 
distance  between  the  sprinklers  on  each  line  should  not  exceed 
the  following: 

8  feet  in  12  foot  bays. 

9  feet  in  11  foot  bays. 

10  feet  in  10  foot  bays. 

11  feet  in     9  foot  bays 

12  feet  in     5  to  8  foot  bays. 

Measurements  should  be  taken  from  center  to  center  of  tim- 
bers. 

Ceilings  of  modified  mill  construction  having  bays  less  than 
three  feet  should  be  treated  as  open  joist  construction  and 
sprinkler  heads  spaced  accordingly.  ' 

Bay  timbers  spaced  three  feet  or  more  on  centers  but 
less  than  five  feet  on  centers,  will  require  special  ruling  by 
the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction. 

JOISTED  CONSTRUCTION— Under  open  finish  joisted 
construction,  ceilings,  floors,  decks  and  roofs,  the  lines  shall 
be  run  at  right  angles  to  the  joists  and  the  sprinklers  "stag- 
gered spaced,"  so  that  heads  will  be  opposite  a  point  half 
way  between  sprinklers  on  adjacent  lines  and  the  distance 
between  sprinklers  not  exceeding  8  feet  at  right  angles  to 
the  joists  or  10  feet  parallel  with  joists;  the  end  heads  on 
alternate  lines  being  not  more  than  2  feet  from  wall  or 
partition. 

Exception — An  exception  may  be  made  to  this  rule  if  the 
conditions  warrant,  viz.,  special  permission  may  be  given  to 
install  but  one  line  of  sprinklers  in  bays  10  to  11^  feet  wide 
from  center  to  center  of  the  timbers  which  support  the 
joists.  In  all  cases  where  such  bays  are  over  11^  feet  wide, 
two  or  more  lines  of  sprinklers  should  be  installed  in  each 
bay  as  required  by  the  rules  for  spacing.     Where  permission 


.;4a6  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

is  given,  the  sprinklers  should  be  placed  closer  together  on 
a  line  so  that  in  no  case  will  the  area  covered  by  a  single 
sprinkler  exceed  80  square  feet. 

Smooth  Finish,  Sheathed  or  Plastered  Ceilings — Under 
smooth  finish,  sheathed  or  plastered  ceilings,  in  bays  6  to  12 
feet  wide  (measurement  to  be  taken  from  center  to  center  of 
timber  girder  or  other  projection  or  support  forming  the 
bay),  one  line  of  sprinklers  shall  be  placed  in  center  of  each 
bay,  and  distance  between  the  sprinklers  on  each  line  should 
not  exceed  the  following:  8  feet  in  12  foot  bays;  9  feet  in  11 
foot  bays;  10  feet  in  6  to  10  foot  bays.  Bays  in  excess  of 
12  feet  in  width  and  less  than  23  feet  in  width  should  con- 
tain at  least  two  lines  of  sprinklers;  bays  23  feet  in  width  or 
over  should  have  the  lines  therein  not  over  10  feet  apart.  In 
bays  in  excess  of  12  feet  in  width  not  more  than  100  square 
feet  ceiling  area  should  be  alloted  to  any  one  sprinkler. 

Pitched  Roofs — Under  a  pitched  roof  sloping  more  steeply 
than  1  foot  in  3,  sprinklers  shall  be  located  in  peak  of  roof, 
and  those  on  either  side  of  peak  spaced  according  to  above 
requirements.  Distance  between  sprinklers  should  be  meas- 
ured on  a  line  parallel  with  roof.  Where  the  roof  meets  the 
floor  line,  sprinklers  should  be  placed  not  over  3^  feet  from 
where  roof  timbers  meet  floor. 

Sprinklers  not  more  than  2^  feet  distant  each  way  from 
peak  of  roof,  measured  on  a  line  with  the  roof,  may  be 
used  in  lieu  of  sprinklers  located  in  peak  of  roof  as  above. 

In  sawtooth  roof  the  end  sprinklers  on  the  branch  line 
shall  not  be  over  2^/2  feet  from  the  peak  of  the  sawtooth. 

FIRE-RESISTIVE  CONSTRUCTION  — The  rules  for 
slow-burning  construction  should  apply  as  far  as  practicable. 
The  rule  may  be  modified,  however,  the  intent  being  to  ar- 
range the  spacing  of  sprinklers  to  protect  the  contents  rather 
than  the  ceilings;  but  in  no  case  shall  the  distance  of  a  sprink- 
ler on  a  line  exceed  12  feet  to  a  sprinkler  on  an  adjoining 
line. 

PIPE  SIZES — General  Schedule — In  no  case  should  the 
number  of  sprinklers  on  a  given  size  pipe  on  one  floor  of 
one  fire  section  exceed  the  following: 


ri/»r: 


Size  of  Maximum  No.  of 

Pipe.  Sprinklers  Allowed. 

^-inch 1     sprinkler 

1  " 2    sprinklers 

UA  "     ..!!..!!!!..!!..!!!*'*'!'*'!***!!! ■^'^'  ' ' 

2  "        ,....,^,,.,,.,, 10 

2^  "      :?^:'.?''^;-^... 20 

3  "         .....;wvT,,yjM;iiv. 36 

4  "         .v'^J.vv..j*::v;J..;>w^:*;.'i.;v..:v>a 80 

5  *'        ...?i.  J:  :....,....;'.  .^;f^,;.  140  *\ 

6  "        ............ -^...^ ....7^.^.  .200 

Where  practicable,  it  is  desirable  to  arrange  the  piping  so 
that  the  number  of  sprinklers  on  a  branch  line  will  not  exceed 
eight. 

FEED  MAINS  AND  RISERS— Location  of  Risers-^^ 
"Center  central"  or  "side  central"  feed  to  sprinklers  is 
recommended.  The  former  is  preferred,  especially  where 
there  are  over  six  sprinklers  on  a  branch  line.  In  high  build- 
ings, allowance  must  be  made  for  frictional  loss  and  sizes  of 
risers  increased  accordingly.  Risers  should  not  be  located 
close  to  windows,  and  should  be  properly  protected  from 
mechanical  injury  or  a  possible  freezing.  .,  .^tfii>,oinf 

Pressure  Gauges — A  standard  make,  45^-inch  dial,  spring 
pressure  gauge  shall  be  connected  with  the  discharge  pipe 
from  each  water  supply,  including  each  connecting  pipe  from 
public  waterworks,  and  also  as  follows: 

In  each  sprinkler  system  above  and  below  the  alarm  check 
or  dry-pipe  valve. 

At  the  air  pump  supplying  the  pressure  tank. 

In  each  independent  pipe  from  air  supply  to  dry-pipe  sys-, 
tems. 

Use  of  High  Degree  or  Hard  Sprinklers — High  degree 
sprinklers  should  be  used  only  when  absolutely  necessary 
and  Inspection  Department  having  jursdictibn  should  be  con- 
sulted in  each  instance.  When  used,  the  following  table 
should  be  referred  to: 


81* 

139 

19 

.   158 

1* 

6 

1 

■ 

7 

31 

5 

27 

9 

..   . 

.   36 

2* 

3 

3 

3 

31 

3 

•• 

34   . 
2   . 

.   34 
2 

42S  •  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

For  ceiling  temperature  exceeding  100  degrees  but  not  150 
degrees,  install  212  degree  heads. 

For  ceiling  temperatures  exceeding  150  degrees  but  not  225 
degrees,  install  286  degree  heads. 

For  ceiling  temperatures  in  excess  of  225  degrees,  install 
360  degree  heads. 

SPRINKLER  FIRE  TABLES 

Sprinkler      Thermo-      Super- 
Watchman.      Alarm.  stat.         visory.  TotaL 
Satis-  Fail-  Satis-  Fail-  Satis-  Fail-  Satis-  Fail- 
fact'y.  ure.  fact'y  ure.  fact'y.  ure.  fact'y.  ure. 
Watchman   &  Sp'kler  Al'm    77 
Watchfnan   &  Thermostats.      6 
Sprinkler  Alarm  &  Thermo.     .. 
Watchman,  Sprinkler  Alarm 

&  Thermostats    1 

Spr'kler  Alarm  &  Sup'vis'y  . . 
Watchman  &  Supervisory.  2 
Watchman,  Sprinkler  Alarm 

&   Supervisory    8         9*         16         1        ..        ..        17      ..        17 

Sprinkler  Alarm,   Thermo- 
stats &  Supervisory 5         1         5         1         6..  6 

Efficiency  of  Alarm  Service,  1897-1916,  Inclusive. 

Satisfactory.  Failure.  Total. 

No.  of            Per  No.  of           Per 

Fires.            Cent.  Fires.          Cent. 

Watchman    alone     1383              89.5  162              10.5  1545 

Sprinkler  alarm  alone  1460              93.6  100                6.4  1560 

Thermostats  alone   170              78.7  46              21.3  216 

Sprinkler      Thermo-      Super- 
Watchman.  Alarm.             stat.         visory.  Total. 
Satis-  Fail-  Satis-  Fail-  Satis-  Fail-  Satis-  Fail- 
fact'y.  ure.  fact'y  ure.  fact'y.  ure.  fact'y.  ure. 

Watchman  &  Sp'kler  Al'm.1008      631*      1439      200        1639 

Watchman    &   Thermostats  19           6*  ..        ..        23         2        ....        25 

Sprinkler  Alarm  &  Therm 439       35      361      113        ..       ..      474 

Watchman,  Sprinkler  Alarm 

&  Thermostats    35'        55*  83         7       70       20        ..       ..        90 

Watchman    &    Supervisory.    4  4*  .. 8      ..  8 

Spr'kler  Alarm  &  Sup'vis'y     ....  147         7        ..        ..150       4      154 
Watchman,  Sprinkler  Alarm 

&  Supervisory    47         54*  100         1        ..        ..      100       1      101 

Sprinkler    Alarm,    Thermo- 

stats  &  Supervisory ..  26         1       22         5       27      ..        27 

*These  include  fires  where  sprinkler  alarm  or  thermostats  notified  the 
watchman. 

Note. — These  tables  do  not  include  fires  where  alarm  service  does  or 
does  not  operate  promptly  if  fire  is  at  once  discovered  by  employee,  the 
alarm  service  having  no  bearing  on  such  fires  one  way  or  the  other. 


SPRINKLER   FIRE   TABLES  429 

Table  No.  4 
Number  of  Sprinklers  Operating. 

No.  of  Sprinklers  No.  of  Fires  Per  Cent  of  Whole 

Operating              1915-1916             1897-1916  Inc.  1915-1916       1897-1916  Inc. 

1  450  5314  34.6  31.1 

2  226  2797  17.4  16.4 

3  149  1761  11.5   •  10.3 

4 86  1262  ^J^  7.4 

5 57  815  4.4  4.8 

6  49  695  3.8  4.1 

7  26  445  2.0  2.6 

8  30  440  2.3  2.6 

9  20  294  1.5  1.7 

10  9  260  .7  1.5 

11  12  226  .9  1.3 

12  16  245  1.2  1.4 

13 7  140  .5  .8 

14  15  170  1.2  1.0 

15 8  132  .6  .8 

16  to  20, 29  460  2.3  2.7 

21  to  25. 28  306  2.2  1.8 

26  to  30 12  210  .9  1.2 

31  to  35 15  133  1.2  .8 

36  to  40 8  104  .6  .6 

41  to  50. 12  155  .9  .9 

51  to  75 17  212  1.3  1.2 

76  to  100 10  104  .8  .6 

Over  100  ....  8  413  .6  2.4 


Total  with 

data  given.  1299  17093 
Water   shut 

off  sprinklers  19  178 
No  data  ....   22         262 


Total....  1340       17533 


INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


Table  No.  5 


Number   of  Sprinklers   Operating. 

No.    of   Sprinklers  No.  of  Fires  Per  Cent  of  Whole 

1897-1916  Inc.  1897-1916  Inc. 

1     *. 5314  31.1 

2  or  less 8111  47.5 

3  or  less    9872  57.8 

4  or  less    11134  65.2 

f  5   or  less 11949  70.0 

"6  or  less    12644  74.1 

7  or  less 13089  1(^:1 

8  or  less 13529  79.3 

9  or  less  13823  81.0 

10  or  less 14083  82.5        ;' 

11  or  less 14309  83.8         \ 

|:12  or  less 14554  85.2    '\ 

13  or  less 14694  86.0 

14  or  less 14864  87.0 

15  or  less 14996  87.8 

20  or  less 15456  90.5 

25  or  less 15762  92.3 

30  or  less 15972  93.5 

35  or  less 16105  94.3 

40  or  less  16209  94.9 

50  or  less 16364  95.8 

75  or  less 16576  97.0 

100  or  less  16680  .  97.6 

Over   100    413  fUr,V2,4UJo-l 

Total   with   data   given 17093 

Water  shut  off  sprinklers 178 

No  data 262 

Total 17533 


SPRINKLER    FIRE    TABLES 


Table  No.  6 

Sprinklers  Opened  on  Wet  or  Dry  Systems. 

Per  Cent  of  No. 
No.  of  Fires      No.  of  Fires  with  Data  Given 

1915-1916       1S971916,  Inc.     1915-1916      1897-1916  Inc. 

Wet  system   1046  12236  79.3  80.2 

Dry   system    :. 272  3016  20.7  19.8 

Total      with      data 

given 1318  15252  ^rme  iaoi 

Water       shut       off  n:\AiK.ir) 

system      19  178 

No   data    3  279 

Total      1340       .    .15709 

Table  No.  7 


Primary  Water  Supplies  to  Sprinklers  Opened. 


Per  Cent  of  No. 
No;  of  Fires      No.  of  Fires  with  Data  Given' 

1915-1916       1897-1916.  Inc.       1915-1916         1897-1916,  Inc. 


Waterworks  ....  707 
Gravity  Tank  ....  270 
Pressure  Tank  ..  252 
Auto.  Steam  Pump  85 
Auto.  Elec.  Pump  0 
Steamer  Connectiion     0 


7809 

53.8 

51.5 

4196 

20.5 

27.5 

2353 

19.2 

15.4 

867 

6.5 

5.55 

4 

.029 

3 

.021 

Total      with      data 

given       1314  15232 

Water       shut       off 

system      19  178 

No  data  7  309 

Total      1340  15719 


43? 


INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


Table  No.  8 

Effect  of  Sprinklers. 


Practically  or  entirely 

extinguished   fire    . 

Held  fire  in   check.. 

Total  successful 

Unsatisfactory 51 

Total 1340 


No.  of 

Fires 

1915-1916 

No.  of 

Fires 

1897-1916, 

Inc. 

Percent,  of  No. 
with  Data  Given 
1915-1916         1897-1916, 
Inc. 

984 

11310 

73.43            64.51 

305 

5410 

22.76            30.84 

1289 

16720 

96.19           95.35 

51 

813 

3.81             4.65 

17533 


Table  No.  9 


Showing  Effect  of  Sprinklers  by  Class  of  Occupancy. 


Held  Fire 
Extinguished        in 

Fire.  Check. 

No.  %  No.       % 

Agricultural   Implements    42  59.2  26       36.6 

Auto.    &    Bicycle    Fact's    53  59.5  31       34.9 

Awning    Factories    5  100.0 

Bag  Factories    4  57.2  3       42.8 

Bakeries    27  67.5  11       27.5 

Basket  Factories   7  100.0        

B't,   N't   &  Screw  Wks.    11  73.3  4       26.7 

Boot   and   Shoe   Shops..  371  74.7  107       21.5 

Bottling   Works    4  100.0        

Braiding    Mills    4  80.0  1       20.0 

Breweries    5  83.4  1       16.6 

Broom   Factories    8  61.5  3       23.1 

Brush    Factories    8  80.0  2       20.0 

Button    Manufactories    .     15  88.3  2       11.7 

Candle    Factories    4  66.7  2        33.3 

Candy    Factories    49  74.3  16       24.3 

Canning    Works    7  70.0  2        20.0 

Car   Houses    19  47.5  16       40.0 

Car    Works    52  65.8  25       31.7 

Carpet    Mills    102  57.7  66       37.3 

Carriage    Factories     ....    81  66.4  34       27.9 

Cel'u'd  (PyroxylinPl's'c,     77  66.3  23       19.8 

Cement  &  Plaster  Wks.      2  66.7        

Cereal    Mills    25  67.6  8       21.6 

Chemical  &  W'te  Lead.     32  56.1  21       36.9 

Clothing    Factories    ....  344  78.8  85       19.5 


Total  Total 

Satis-  Unsatis-  No.  of 

factory.  factory.    Fires 

No.        %  No.      % 


68 

95.8 

3 

4.2 

71 

84 

94.4 

5 

5.6 

89 

5 

100.0 

, , 

5 

7 

100.0 

7 

38 

95.0 

5.0 

40 

7 

100.0 

, , 

7 

15 

100.0 

15 

478 

96.2 

19 

3.8 

497 

4 

100.0 

, , 

4 

5 

100.0 

5 

6 

100.0 

6 

n 

84.6 

2 

15.4 

13 

10 

100.0 

10 

17 

100.0 

17 

6 

100.0 

6 

65 

98.6 

1 

1.4 

66 

9 

90.0 

1 

10.0 

10 

35 

87.5 

5 

12.5 

40 

77 

97.5 

2 

2.5 

79 

168 

95.0 

9 

5.0 

177 

115 

94.3 

7 

5.7 

122 

100 

86.1 

16 

13.9 

116 

2 

66.7 

1 

33.3 

3 

33 

89.2 

4 

10.8 

37 

51 

93.0 

4 

7.0 

57 

429 

98.3 

7 

1.7 

436 

SPRINKLER  SUPERVISORY  SYSTEM 

Coflfee   and   Spice   Mills.     34  72.3  13  27.7  47  100.0 

Coffin    Factories    32  80.0  7  17.5  39  97.5 

Cold   Storage   Plants....      3  50.0  3  50.0  6  100.0 

Co6perage   Plants    41  55.4  25  33.8  66  89.2 

Cordage    Works     173  66.3  79  30.3  252  96.6 

Cork    Factories    6  50.0  4  33.3  10  83.3 

Corset   Factories    4  57.2  2  28.6  6  85.8 

Cotton   Ginnery   10  66.7  5  33.3  15  100.0 

Cotton   Mills    2808  60.7  1763  38.2  4571  98.9 

Cotton    Warehouses    ...    86  43.2  92  46.2  178  89.4 

Cotton  Seed  Oil  Mills..    36  53.8  21  31.3  57  85.1 

Cutlery    and    Hardware.      7  53.8  5  38.5  12  92.3 

Department    Stores    ....  256  79.6  65  17.0  311  96.6 


2.6 


47' 

40 
6 

8  10.8       74 

9  3.4     261 
2     16.7 
1     14.2 


12 
7 

15 

52  1.1  4623 
21     10.6      199 

10  14.9  67 
1       7.7       13 

11  3.4      322 


SPRINKLER  SUPERVISORY  SYSTEM— "Weekly  Un- 
derwriter." 1.  No  gate  valve  in  the  sprinkler  system  can  be 
closed,  wholly  or  in  part,  without  immediate  notice  to  the 
outside  central  office. 

2.  The  presence  of  water  leakage  equal  to  the  discharge 
of  one  or  more  sprinkler  heads  is  instantly  recorded  at  the 
Central  Station  and  from  there,  if  necessary,  to  the  fire  de- 
partment. 

3.  Thus  the  operation  of  a  sprinkler  head,  or  the  pulling  of 
a  manual  fire  alarm  box,  that  is  included  in  this  equipment, 
assures  at  the  earliest  possible  moment  notice  to  the  fire 
department  of  the  presence  of  a  fire  and  brings  immediately 
the  most  important  auxiliaries  to  the  aid  of  the  sprinklers. 

4.  Not  more  than  six  inches  of  water  can  drop  in  any 
of  the  sprinkler  tanks  without  immediate  notice  to  central 
office. 

5.  The  water  in  any  exposed  tank  can  neither  freeze  nor 
become  dangerously  warm  without  instant  signal  to  the  cen- 
tral station. 

6.  There  cannot  be  a  drop  of  more  than  five  pounds  of 
pressure  in  either  the  pressure  tanks  or  fire  pumps  without 
immediate  notice  to  Central  Office. 

In  short,  no  defect  or  disorder  in  the  sprinkler  system  can 
occur  without  due  notice  to  the  district  office. 

SPRINKLER  VALVES  (Closed)  have  resulted  in  total 
losses  even  in  risks  with  100  per  cent,  equipments.  A  closed 
valve  prevents  water  from  reaching  the  seat  of  fire.  Fre- 
quent causes  of  closed  valves  are  repair  work  to  system  and 
then  forgetting  to  turn  water  on,  cutting  off  mains  or  sup- 
plies  which   are   subject   to   freezing.     If  it   is   necessary  to 


'6M 


r-jntPGRAmy  tahk  hoat 

2  WATER  LEVEL 
S  THERMOMETER 
AO\JERELOW     ' 

5  GATE  VALUE  SWITCH 

6  PRESSURE  SWITCH 

7  AIR  PRESSURE  r- 
S:  WATER  LEVEL  /^r  %i 
9  PRESSURE  ELOAT     r:;.    . 

10  PRESSURE  TAttK        ''      . 

11  GATE  VALVE  SWITCH' 

12  conbuiT 

\3  JUhCTIOM  BOX 

14  VALVE-ALARM  SWITCH, 

\S  GATE  VALVE  3wiTCH    -  "       ^' 

16  HIGH  SLOW  PRESSURESWlTOi : 

\7  C0/1DUIT  ,^.,,,j-    ^,^. 

\Q  SUPERVISORY  S^T. 

19  mi  RETARD  VALVE-ALARM  BOX 

20  DRY  VALVE  SWITCH 

21  GATE  VALVE  SWITCH 

22  AIR  VALVE 

23  JUHCTIOM  BOXES 

24  BATTERY  BOX 

25  GROUHD  LEVEL 

26  POST IHDICATOR  GATE  VALVE SiVITCH 

27  DOUBLE  COMDUIT 
2BCITY MAIH     '^  "^'^f' 
2SDRAmPIPE''   sTJnmf  h«n  gtB 
30  PRESSURE  GAUGE  SWITCH 

3\  GATE  VALVE  SWITCH 
S2  COMDUIT 

33  GATE  VALVE  SWITCH 

34  5r/?/^Ai  5(/;'Piy 

55  QROUMD  LEVEL 


ogivxa^us 


nOTf:6AT£  VALV£  TOBESUPmiSfD  WH£I^E 
FUHPTAKE5  supply  UnDtRCOhSrm  HEAD 


'U\r,  J5  326]^ 

SupervisorYahd  Valve-Alarm  Servic!?^'^^^  ^^^^^'^p 

DlAORAMATIC  DRAWING  "     " '         ";   '     " '  '^   ;i ' ' ' '  '   /^        \ 

Typical  Sprinklered  Risk.  '  ^ ' 


H2 


•-'-.     r  tip  ft 


THISmOM  OHYPmSYSTEM 
dALA/fC£  Of  SYSTEM  W£T. 


436  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

close  a  valve,  station  a  man  at  the  valve  to  turn  it   on  in 
case  of  fire. 

STABLES  (horses)— It  is  important  that  the  location 
and  number  of  horses  be  fully  brought  out  in  an  inspection 
report  of  a  stable  risk,  also  whether  the  runway  is  straight 
or  winding  and  leads  directly  to  the  street  or  whether  it  may 
be  blocked  at  night  by  wagons.  The  fire  record  proves  that 
you  may  count  on  a  total  loss  in  almost  all  cases  where  the 
animals  are  above  or  below  the  grade  floor,  unless  the  exits 
and  runways  are  standard.  A  horse  cannot  be  led  from  a 
burning  building  until  his  eyes  are  blindfolded. 

Oat  Crushers — Should  have  magnet  attachments  so  that 
nails  and  other  foreign  metallic  substances  will  not  pass 
through   the   roller  and   cause   sparks   to   ignite   the   dust. 

Stable  Lanterns — Whenever  gas  lights  are  used  in  stables, 
the  jets  should  be  protected  with  glass  enclosed  lanterns 
which  prevents  the  hay  and  straw  from  coming  in  contact 
with  the  naked  flame.  Kerosene  lanterns  should  not  be  per- 
mitted.    Electricity  is  the  best  method  of  lighting. 

Private  Family  Stable — This  is  perhaps  the  best  that  can 
be  had  and  is  one  used  exclusively  by  one  family  for  housing 
of  horses  and  pleasure  vehicles.  Usually  the  upper  portion 
of  the  building  is  occupied  for  dwellings  by  the  coachmen, 
but  may  be  a  hay  loft  containing  rubbish. 

Private  Business  Stable — This  is  one  where  the  occupancy 
is  that  of  a  single  tenant  housing  horses  and  business  vehicles 
and  run  as  part  of  or  in  conjunction  with  some  regular  busi- 
ness. This  class  would  include  stables  run  in  conjunction 
with  retail  stores,  breweries,  dairies  and  large  merchants. 
These  are  usually  desirable  as  the  conditions  present  are  in 
most  cases  better  than  the  ordinary  stable  because  more  at* 
tention  is  paid  to  care  and  maintenance. 

Boarding  Stables — These  are  comjnonly  used  by  individ-  j 
uals  or  merchants  for  the  boarding  of  their  horses,  carriage^  n 
and  wagons.  In  other  words,  the  proprietor  reaps  a  profit ^^ 
for  assuming  this  care. 

Livery  Stables — In  these  stables,  horses,  carriages  and 
wagons  are  kept  for  renting  to  others,  and  quite  often  they 
are  run  in  connection  with  boarding  stables.     While  not  so 


on ITmwaaci  STABLES  t,  437 

desirable  as  a  private  business  stable,  they  are  good  as  sec- 
ond choice. 

Riding  Academy — This  is  usually  an  adjunctr  to^-ii/JivJ^ry 
stable  and  consists  of  a  large  covered  addition  with  tan-bark 
floor  for  indoor  riding.  It  can  be  placed  in  the  same  class 
as  a  livery  stable. 

Express  and  Trucking  Stables — While  similar  to  a  private 
business  stable,  attention  should  be  given  to  the  kinds  of  mer- 
chandise apt  to  be  stored  on  the  premises  overnight. 

Contractors*  Stables— Private  business  in  nature,  but 
usually  filled  with  wooden  forms  and  moulds,  tools,  machin* 
ery,  etc. 

Sales  Stables — At  these  stables,  usually  only  horses  are 
kept  and  they  are  held  for  private  sales  or  auctions.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  carelessly  kept  classes,  mainly  because  the 
help  employed  is  not  of  the  best.  The  sporting  trade  and 
representatives  of  buyers  frequent  these  stables  smoking, 
etc.  As  a  rule,  there  is  not  much  interest  in  keeping  these 
stables  clean,  because  the  horses  are  kept  for  a  short  time 
only.  They  are  not  so  good  as  would  be  in  a  private  busi- 
ness or  family  stable. 

Veterinary  Stables — In  these  stables,  horses  are  doctored 
and  treated  for  wounds,  lameness,  etc.  The  class  can  be 
likened  to  hospitals,  for  in  case  of  fire,  many  of  the  horses 
will  perish  because  some  cannot  be  moved  except  with  great 
difficulty.  In  some  cases  it  will  be  found  that  horses  are 
suspended  from  the  ceiling  by  braces. — S.  T.  Skirrow  in  "The 
Weekly  Underwriter." 

STACK — The   brick   chimney   of  a  boiler   or   furnace. 

STAGGERED — A  term  used  in  connection  with  spacing 
of  sprinkler  heads;  also  casks  of  water  on  piers  or  foundry 
roofs.  Say  casks  of  water  on  one  side  of  pier  are  placed 
every  100  feet.  The  next  row  should  be  placed  so  that  the 
casks  will  be  opposite  a  point  half-way  between  casks  on 
the  opposite  side. 

STAGING  the  temporary  flooring  of  scaffolds  or  plat- 
forms. In  fireproof  buildings,  especially  theatres  and 
churches,  this  constitutes  an  extra  hazard  while  the  building 


438  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

is  in  course  of  construction  because  of  the  large  amount 
of  light  wood  framing  used  in  the  interior. 

STAIN  REMOVERS— Sometimes  contain  inflammable 
liquids.        '^>'^    '^  '^'^ 

STAIR-^A'  ^6xed  stairway  is  one  that  is  enclosed  without 
a  hallway,  the  enclosing  material  being  fastened  against 
the  under  sid^  of  the  stairs  and  boxing  in  the  sides.  If 
thefe  is  d  s(ilf-cldsing  door  at  the  top  of  each  stair-landing, 
it  is  much  better  than  a  wood  enclosed  hallway. 

A  wood  enclosed  stairway  is  one  with  a  continuous 
shaft  including  the  hallway.  Fire  in  this  class  of  shaft  could 
travel  from  the  lower  floor  to  the  top  of  the  building.  Box- 
ing is  better.  '.^tdi^j'ci 

STAIRCASES  of  wood  may  be  rendered  pra'cticatlly  fire- 
resisting,  if  the  spaces  underneath  the  treads  and  risers  and 
between  stringers,  and  also  under  the  lower  joists  of  land- 
ing's are  closed  solid  with  mortar  or  other  incombustible 
material.     See  Shafts. 

STAIR  PADS — Usually  made  in  mattress  factories,  and 
th'e  hazards  are  practically  the  same.  A  cheap  grade  of  stock 
is  generally  used.  Some  manufacturers  buy  up  old  cotton- 
stufifed  settees  and  upholstered  furniture  and  use  the  stuff- 
ing for  the  stair  pads.  Jute,  moss  and  other  fibres  are  used. 
Hazards  of  pickers,  "garnet'''  machines,  lappers,  untidy  prem- 
ises, dust-laden  atmospheres.     A.  K.  O.  class. 

STAMP  COLLECTIONS— Many  single  stamps  are  quitt 
valuable,  and  a  small  collection  of  rare  stamps  reaches  a  large 
sum.  An  expert  is  needed  to  determine  values  as  minor  de- 
fects or  flaws  render  an  otherwise  valuable  stamp  nearly 
worthless.     A  class  of  insurance  not  usually  solicited. 

STAMPING— See   Embroideries. 

STANDPIPE — A  water  tower  or  a  vertical  water  pipe  with 
hose  connections  for  fire  purposes.  Those  installed  in  new 
'buildings  should  always  bfe  given  a  fire  test.  A  recent  test 
in  New  York  City  showed  many  risers  to  be  badly  clogged. 
A  fire  chief  in  New  York  City  declared  that  carelessness  and 
lazy  workrnen  frequently  throw  bricks,  dirt  and  cement  into 
the  open  riser  rather  than  take  the  trouble  of  carting  them 
downstairs.     The   hose  should  be   inspected  occasionally,   as 


STARCH  439 

they  have  been  found  badly  rotting  close  to  the  nozzle  and 
couplings.  This  is  caused  by  the  porters  cleaning  the  brass- 
work  with  polishing  acids,  and  the  seepage  of  water.  Siam- 
ese or  fire  department  connections  on  the  street  become 
clogged  unless  properly  capped.  They  should  be  carefully 
examined  periodically  as  caps  become  rusted  at  the  threads 
or  are  stolen.  On  piers,  or  other  similar  places  where  many 
outsiders  have  access,  it  is  quite  customary  to  remove  the 
brass  nozzles  so  that  they  will  not  be  stolen,  or  substitute 
iron  ones.  As  a  ruse,  some  owners  paint  brass  nozLles 
black  to  resemble  iron.  See  Siamese  Connection. 
STANFOIL  is  tinfoil  made  of  pure  tin. 
STARCH  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
made  from  wheat,  potatoes,  corn,  rice,  etc. 

All  machinery  such  as  pulverizers,  grinders,  attrition  ma- 
chines should  be  grounded  to  carry  off  static  electricity  gen- 
erated by  rapidly-moving  machinery.  All  conveyor  pipes 
and  ducts,  elevator  legs,  should  have  dust  collectors  to  pre- 
vent dust  explosions.  Explosion  boxes  to  vent  and  reduce 
the  force  of  explosion  are  necessary  on  legs  and  conveyors. 
Fires  occur  in  pressing  and  drying  rooms  where  the  drying 
and  pressing  oil  from  "germ"  (ground  corn)  takes  place. 
The  germ  left  in  dryer  tank  decomposes  from  the  heat  given 
off,  generating  a  gas  which  ignites. 

Starch  (as  made  from  potatoes) — The  potatoes  are 
washed  in  water  in  revolving  tube  and  grated.  The  grater 
is  a  cylindrical  tube  of  iron,  encased  in  wood,  having  per- 
forated iron  bands  and  rough  side  which,  in  revolving  grates 
the  potatoes.  The  pulp  passes  over  a  moving  screen  upon 
which  water  is  played  from  hose  streams.  This  forces  the 
pulp  through  the  screen,  the  waste  matter  being  shaken  off. 
The  pulp  travels  through  troughs  to  precipitating  tanks» 
where,  after  settling,  the  water  is  drawn  off  and  the  starch 
placed  in  agitator  vats.  The  mass  is  then  dried  by  atmos- 
phere on  slatted  wood  floor  and  barrelled. 

STARCH  BUCK — A  wood  enclosed  automatic  machine 
with  an  inner  screen  working  back  and  forth,  and  a  hopper 
at  one  end  for  candy,  and  at  the  opposite  end  an  opening 
for   the    starch.     This    machine    automatically    separates    the 


:3 


p. 

B 

'U2 


STATIC   ELECTRICITY  441' 

Starch  from  the  candy,  cleans  and  delivers  candy,  refills  and 
delivers  trays  w^ith  a  minimum  amount  of  dust,  and  is  there- 
fore recommended  for  factories  making  candies.  See  Candy 
Factories.     See  Illustration. 

STARTING  BOX— A  rheostat  used  for  starting  and  coti-' 
trolling  motors. 

STATIC  OR  FRICTIONAL  ELECTRICITY  is  more 
liable  to  be  generated  v^^hen  the  atmosphere  is  clear  and 
dry  than  when  it  is  moist.  It  is  generated  by  the  rubbing 
together  of  substances  that  in  themselves  are  non-conductors 
of  electricity  (or  one  conductor  and  a  non-conductor);  such 
as,  dry  wood  or  rubber.  It  may  be  generated  by  friction  be- 
tween a  non-conductor  and  a  conductor;  such  as,  gasoline 
and  a  metal  pipe;  although  in  the  latter,  the  intensity  is  much 
diminished.  During  the  process  of  filling  an  automobile  there 
should  be  a  good  metallic  disc  connection  between  the  stor- 
age tank  and  the  tank  of  the  motor  vehicle,  so  that  all  elec- 
tricity generated  may  readily  pass  off  to  the  ground  as  fast 
as  generated.  (Automobile  Topics.)  In  filling  tanks  of 
automobiles  or  can  with  gasoline  strained  through  chamois 
from  metal  cans,  the  can  should  rest  on  metal  to  afford  a 
good  ground.     See  Lightning. 

STATIC  PRESSURE  is  pressure  created  by  the  weight 
of  water  while  at  rest. 

STATIONERS'  SUPPLIES— Consist  of  various  wood, 
metal  and  paper  articles  and  novelties,  school  supplies,  toys. 
Celluloid  goods  are  sometimes  included. 

STATIONERY  STORES  (together  with  penny  candy 
trade)  should  be  written  only  as  an  accommodation  risk, 
after  a  survey  has  been  made  and  a  trade  report  examined. 
Failures  and  fires  are  quite  frequently  reported  in  this  class. 

STATUARY  (bronze) — Those  of  large  size  are  made 
from  miniatures,  or  replicas  of  wax  which  are  covered  with 
a  plaster  form  or  a  covering  applied  by  hand.  The  wax  is 
melted  out  in  a  furnace  and  the  hollow  space  remaining  is 
filled  with  molten  bronze.  The  wax  used  is  a  mixture  of 
glycerine,  gelatine,  canauber  wax  and  bees-wax.  The  foun- 
dry work  is  extensive.  Here  we  find  built-up  brick  kilns, 
core  ovens,  wooden  flasks,  furnaces.     Dilute   sulphuric  and 


4j^  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

nitric  acids  are  used  for  cleaning  bronze  parts.  The  waxes 
used  are  usually  heated  by  direct  fire.  This  work  is  found 
in- most  of  the  departments.  Large  stocks  of  models  con- 
stitute considerable  proportion  of  the  value  of  the  contents 
and  should  be  considered  the  same  as  patterns.  Usually 
frame  risks  of  foundry  type.     See  Sculptors. 

STAYS— ^Generally  applied  to  props,  struts  and  ties  for 
keeping  timbers  in  place.  *;.*: 

STEAM — Water  converted  into  an  elastic  vapor  by  the 
application  of  heat.  Low  pressure  steam  has  a  pressure  be- 
low 15  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 

High  pressure  steam  according  to  the  rules  of  the  Ex- 
change has  a  pressure  above  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 
They  will  treat  boilers  as  low  pressure  if  the  safety  valve 
is  set  at  15  pounds.  If  boiler  room  is  cut  off  with  12-inch 
brick  or  concrete  side  walls  with  standard  doors  at  openings 
and  8-inch  concrete  or  brick  ceiling  on  steel  beams,  no  extra 
charge  is  made  in  rate. 

STEAM  JETS— The  efficiency  of  steam  jets  for  fire  ex- 
tinguishment lies  in  the  confinement  of  the  steam  and  its 
smothering  effect  on  the  fire,  depriving  it  of  its  life-giving 
oxygen. 

STEAM  PIPES  must  be  at  least  2  inches  from  all  un- 
protected woodwork.  If  protected  by  a  metal  collar,  the 
distance  may  be  1  ifich.  There  is  much  less  damage  likely 
from   low   pressure    than    from    steam   at    high    pressure.     ';; 

Steam  pipes,  if  in  contact  with  wood,  have  been  known\(o 
c^use  occasional  fires.  It  is  claimed  that  any  steam  pipe  in 
contact  with  wood  no  matter  how  low  the  pressure,  will  in 
time  produce  charcoal,  and  as  charcoal  is  unquestionably 
subject  to  spontaneous  combustion,  the  recommendation  to 
remove  woodwork  from  all  steam  pipes  is  well  founded. 

Before  heat  is  turned  on,  all  dust  and  refuse  around  pipes 
should   be   removed.     See    Pipe   Openings. 

STEAM  TANKS  or  kettles   (set  through  flooring)   where 
high  temperatures  are  needed,  should  be  2  inches  from  wood 
flooring. 
:   STEARIC  ACID— Usually  prepared  from  beef  tallow  by 


UlITlHWHaaV^TE^L  OITDaqgHl 


443 


saponification  with  sulphuric  acid,   distilling,  and   hot  press- 
ing.    Used  in  soap  and  candle  manufactjiring.         .,;,   .-, 

STEARINE — Similar   to   paraffine-wax.  ,  Non-volatilg<i      . 

STEEL — A  kind  of  iron  or  rather  a  compouiixlj,9f.>ii*Q9>fir9d 

In  a  ourn'fnQ  Pui/Jifta 
tr)€  sSirucit/re,  * 

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'' 7^/J^pRpo/:^  ^ 

two  inche^'of  terra  ^*f^«^(3ncnti'e 


^A 

Cast 

IRpN 
l/n|»roftcfcc| 


UNAPPR0V60  APPRCVGIJij'    cl    MilJi^ai    :>ii  ■ 

Copyright,   1915.    G.    A.    Ins.    Co.  •,f{|offT    ,;    snno}    \y 

carbon.  In  every  100  lbs.  of  steel  there  are  from  2  to  2}^ 
lbs.  of  carbon.  Steel  is  made  from  either  cast  or  wrought- 
iron.  There  are  two  kinds  of  steel,  one  is  brittle,  the  other 
is  just  the  opposite,  i.  e.,  very  flexible.     If  steel  is  heate<t 


444^  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

then  suddenly  cooled,  it  will  be  hard  and  brittle.  If  it  be 
cooled  slowly  it  will  be  soft,  and  can  be  readily  hammered 
out  like  wrought-iron. 

Steel  begins  to  lose  its  supporting  strength  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  900  deg.  F,  after  which  its  loss  of  strength  is 
extremely  rapid  until  at  1600  deg.  F.  it  is  practically  nil. 
— Hooker's    Chemistry. 

Steel  (shear) — Hammered  steel  of  fine  texture  and  tough- 
er than  ordinary  steel. 

Steel  (soft) — Naturally  a  gray  color,  is  turned  to  a  bluish 
tint  by  heating.  A  long,  narrow  metal  frame  is  used  with 
small  perforations  at  top.  Gas  flames  at  the  perforations 
heat  the  steel  when  it  is  placed  on  top.     See  Structural  Steel. 

STEELITE — A  new  metal  composed  of  75  per  cent,  co- 
balt and  the  remainder  chromium.  Used  for  tools;  will  cut 
steel  on  a  lathe;  impervious  to  rust  or  acids. 

STEEL  WOOL— The  shavings  from  steel  wire.  It  is 
practically  useless  if  wet.  Steel  wire  rusts  readily  and  in 
that  condition  cannot  be  used  until  the  rust  has  been  re- 
moved. Spontaneous  ignition  is  apt  to  occur  in  piles  of 
steel  wool,  if  oily. 

STEREOTYPING— This  necessitates  the  formation  of  the 
type  in  a  cylinder  or  roller  form,  while  the  metal  which  pro- 
vides the  backing  must  also  be  in  the  same  form.  To  pro- 
vide this  cylindrical  form  is  the  next  step.  The  form  is 
removed  to  a  table  and  a  sheet  of  specially  prepared  paper 
called  the  matrix  is  moistened  and  laid  over  the  face  of  the 
type  and  is  either  beaten  with  a  large  brush  so  that  an  im- 
pression of  the  type  is  fully  made  or  it  is  run  through  a 
power  roller  press  to  accomplish  the  same  result.  After  the 
impression  has  been  satisfactorily  made  the  form  with  the 
matrix  is  placed  on  a  steam  table  to  dry,  and  when  removed 
the  matrix  is  still  flexible  enough  to  shape  in  the  desired 
manner.  The  matrix  is  now  put  into  a  casting  box  which 
when  closed  forms  a  mould  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent  on 
one  side  of  which  the  matrix  is  placed.  Molten  lead  is 
poured  into  the  remaining  space  from  the  top  and  when 
filled  the  metal  soon  hardens  sufficiently  to  be  removed. 
The  form  has  now  been  reproduced  on  a  solid  piece  of  metal 


STOCKS  445 

which  after  being  trimmed  and  grooved  is  ready  to  be  placed 
in  the  press  for  printing  the  paper. 

STICKERS — Woodworking  machines  similar  to  matching- 
planers  but  smaller.  They  have  cutters  for  each  of  four 
sides  of  stock  and  make  considerable  refuse.  Should  have 
blowers. 

STICK  LAC — Lac  in  its  natural  state,  encrusting  leaves. 

STILES — The  flat  vertical  pieces  between  and  at  the  sides 
of  panel  doors  or  windows. 

STIPULATED  WAREHOUSE— See  Warehouses. 

STOCKS  should  not  be  placed  against  the  walls  and  should 
be  on  skids  at  least  6  inches  from  the  floor.  Aisles  of  2  feet 
should  be  maintained  and  stock  not  piled  nearer  than  2  feet 
to  the  ceiling. 

Stocks  on  grade  floors  of  frame  buildings  are  considered 
nearly  as  good  as  similar  stocks  in  brick  buildings.  They  are 
just  as  accessible  to  fire  department.  The  hazards  are  the 
same,  and  salvage  is  as  great.  Furthermore,  frame  building 
being  smaller  in  area  and  height  than  the  usual  brick  struc- 
ture, if  collapsing,  will  precipitate  less  weight  on  grade  floor 
stock. 

Stocks  in  poorer  sections  of  the  city  may  not  be  attractive 
in  appearance,  but  where  the  stock  is  suitable  for  the  neigh- 
borhood, the  business  established  for  a  length  of  time,  and 
the  other  conditions  incident  to  the  business  are  satisfactory, 
they  are  sometimes  preferable  to  more  pretentious  stores  in 
better  sections. 

STOCK  VALUATIONS  are  usually  based  on  the  assured's 
inventories.  If  these  are  destroyed  by  fire,  the  inventories 
of  similar  plants  of  like  size  and  character  are  used  to  get 
at  an  approximate  value.  See  Lines;  see  Retail  Stocks;  also 
Upper  Floor  Contents. 

STONE  under  the  action  of  severe  heat  will  crack,  shell 
or  calcine.  It  should  be  used  most  cautiously  in  fireproof 
construction. 

STONE  YARDS— Usually  enclosed  in  a  high  roofed  over, 
light  constructed  frame  shed.  Many  have  a  traveling,  motor- 
power  crane  on  track  and  trestle.  Granite  and  polished  stone 
'subject  to   severe  damage  by  fire  and  water. 


^U  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

l,.,STORAGE  AND  REPAIR  CLAUSE  should  be  placed  on 
all  policies  where  goods  are  likely  to  be  left  on  storage. 

STORAGE  LINES — Companies  prefer  to  write  short  term 
insurance  on  contents  instead  of  yearly  insurance  on  the 
buildings  themselves,  as  a  greater  premium  income  is  thus 
derived  because  "short  rates"  are  charged.  For  knowledge 
of  hazak-dous  commodities  see  books,  ^^The  Handling  of  Dan- 
gerous Goods,"  by  Joshua  Phillips,  and  "Fire  and  Explosion 
Risks,"  by  Von  Schwartz, — D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  publishers. 

STORAGE  STORES,  FREE  AND  BONDED— The  dif- 
fefeilce  between  these  stores  is— in  the  "Free  Store"  the  duty 
or  revenue  is  paid  to  the  goverfimefit  before  the  goods  go 
in'storage;  while  in  a  bonded  store  it  is'paid  when  the  goods 
are  removed. 

To  remove  goods  from  a  "Bonded  Store"  it  is  necessary  to 
pay  the  duty  or  revenue  on  the  amount  that  is  desired  to  be 
taken  out  of  storage.  When  the  duty  (amount  demanded 
by  Government)  is  received  by  the  Custom  House,  they  is- 
sue an  order  to  their  representative  at  the  storage  store 
showing  that  the  duty  has  been  paid  and  he  permits  goods 
to  be  removed. 

NOTE — Each  bonded  store  has  a  Custom  House  officer  on 
the  premises  at  all  times.  His  duty  is  to  see  that  no  goods 
are  removed  unless  an  order  is  shown  that  the  duty  has 
been  paid. 

•  The  object  is  so  that  the  owner  need  not  pay  the  duty  or 
revenue  until  the  goods  are  actually  sold  and  removed  froni 
the  wafehduse.— Richardson.     See  Warehouses. 

STORAGE  STORES  LISTED  must  be  occupied,  and  be 
under  the  exclusive  control  of  the  warehouseman.  In  New 
York  City,  in  order  to  have  a  store  listed,  the  Board  of  Un- 
derwriters issue  certain  requirements  as  to  lighting,  construc- 
tion and  occupancy.     No  volatiles  or  chemicals  are  permitted. 

STORAX — An  imported  resinous  gum  used  by  perfume 
manufacturers.  . 

STORE  FIXTURES — Manufacturing  hazards  are  those  of 
woodworker?,  including  painting  and  varnishing.  The  fire 
record  is  not  good. 


STOVES  m 

STOVE-PIPE  WORKS— Mainly  sheet  metal  working.  El- 
bows are  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  three  parts  naphtha  to  one 
part  of  machine  oil  for  "varnishing."  An  unprofitable  class 
for  insurance  companies. 

STOVE  POLISH  may  contain  a  large  percentage  of  ben- 
zine.    Test  for  flash  point. 

STOVES — Should  be  on  iron  stands  or  legs,  with  metal 
under  and  12  inches  in  front  of  stove,  and  3  feet  from  com- 
bustible partitions;  if  partitions  or  woodwork  are  shielded 
with  metal,  the  distance  may  be  18  inches. 

STOVES  (kitchen)— There  is  a  type  of  kitchen  range 
being  used,  from  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  remove  the  ashes 
by  means  of  the  ordinary  pan.  A  funnel  is  provided  under- 
neath the  grate  of  the  range.  This  funnel  or  pipe  extends 
through  the  floor  to  a  receptacle  in  the  basement.  The  pipe 
or  funnel  should  be  insulated  by  a  protecting  sleeve  so  as  to 
provide  air  space  where  passing  through  the  floor.  There 
is  danger  of  clogging  the  funnel  from  neglect  in  emptying 
the  container  in  the  basement.  This  method  of  dropping  hot 
ashes  out  of  sight  does  not  appeal  to  most  underwriters  un- 
less they  drop  into  a  substantial  brick  enclosed  ashpit  hav- 
ing a  heavy  iron  door. 

STOVES  (pot  stoves) — Used  extensively  in  lofts  as  they 
give  out  large  volumes  of  heat.  The  fire  pot  which  consists 
of  an  unlined  iron  casting  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  thick 
expands  or  contract  from  excessive  heat,  and  sudden  cool- 
ing when  the  fire  goes  out.  This  causes  cracks.  The  cracks 
enlarge  and  allow  hot  coals  to  fall  on  the  floor. 

STRAIN — When  a  solid  body  is  subjected  to  a  stress  of 
any  kind  an  alteration  is  produced  in  the  volume  or  shape  of 
the  body  and  the  alteration  is  called  the  strain.  Strain,  is 
therefore,  the  result  of  a  stress  or  stresses  (Kidder). 

STRAINER — Used  on  sprinkler  suction  lines  where  water 
is  likely  to  contain  weeds,  refuse,  etc.,  or  where  intake  is 
from  a  pond.     See  Foot  Valve. 

STRAW  GOODS  stock  will  give  a  very  poor  account  of 
itself  in  a  fire  because  the  strands  are  usually  glued  together 
and  sized. 

STREETS  (Unpaved) — Should  always  be  indicated  on  in- 


4W  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

spection  reports.  In  bad  weather  fire  departments  experience 
difficulty  in  traversing  unpaved,  muddy  roads,  hence  a  de- 
lay in  reaching  a  fire. 

STRENGTH  OF  MATERIAL— See  Stress,  Compression 
and  Tension. 

STRESS — A  stress  is  an  internal  resistance  which  balances 
an  external  force.  By  placing  a  weighty  object  on  another 
object  of  similar  character  there  is  a  downward  pressure 
(weight)  or  external  force  which  is  met  by  the  internal  re- 
sistance (stress)  of  the  under  object,  preserving  the  samci 
in  equilibrium,  otherwise  the  lower  object  would  be  crushed. 

STRETCHER— A  brick  or  block  of  masonry  laid  length- 
wise to  the  wall. 

STRIKES — Firms  which  are  constantly  at  logger-heads 
with  their  help,  should  not  be  considered  desirable  insurance 
as  fires  may  be  caused  by  dissatisfied  or  discharged  em- 
ployees. 

STRINGER— Any  longitudinal  timber  or  beam. 

STRIPPING  in  paper  box  factories  is  the  glueing  together 
of  the  ends  and  sides  of  boxes.  The  "stripper"  has  a  glue 
pot  at  one  end  which  is  heated  by  steam  or  gas.  If  the  lat- 
ter, the  glue  pot  should  be  "jacketed'*  and  a  "baffle-plate" 
placed  under  the  burners  to  catch  the  hot  carbon.  An  oper- 
ator sits  at  one  end  of  the  machine  and  draws  a  strip  of 
paper  (from  a  roll)  through  the  glue  pot. 

STRONTIA — Called  strontium  nitrate;  heavy,  white,  crys- 
taline  salt;  a  strong  oxydizing  agent. 

STRUCTURAL  STEEL  should  be  protected  with  fire  re- 
sistive insulation  such  as  terra-cotta,  concrete  or  brick  suf- 
ficiently thick  to  withstand  a  powerful  stream  of  water  with- 
out being  destroyed  thereby  exposing  the  steel  work. 

STRUT — A  prop,  the  piece  that  sustains  compression. 

STRUT  BEAMS— Struts  that  are  also  subject  to  trans- 
verse strain. 

STRUT  BOARD — A  board  located  under  the  pulley  at  top 
of  an  elevator  (lofter)  leg  and  forming  part  of  the  enclosure. 
Should  be  slanting  to  prevent  grain  or  dust  from  banking  up 
and  clogging  the  mechanism,  thereby  generating  sparks 
which  would  ignite  the  dust  or  grain.     See  Breweries. 


.;,  STUCCO    CONSTRUCTION  449 

STUCCO — Its  composition  varies.     The  following  may  be 
used,  plaster  of  Paris,   glue,   cement,   silica,   sand  or  marble 
dust,  sea  sand,  lime,  water. 
.    STUCCO  BUILDINGS  are  classed  as  frame. 

STUCCO  CONSTRUCTION— The  older  method  is  to 
stucco  over  metal  lath  taking  the  place  of  clapboards  ot 
weatherboards.  The  newer  method,  no  sheathing  is  re- 
quired, the  stucco  and  metal  lath  takes  the  place  of  sheat- 
ing  or  clapboards.  The  sheathing  should  be  diagonal  to  the 
studding  to  make  a  firmer  brace  aad  prevent  cracking,  and 
covered  with  waterproof  paper  well  lapped,  providing  the 
stucco  is  placed  over  the  sheathing.  The  waterproof  paper 
prevents  the  wood  from  absorbing  the  moisture  from  the  ce- 
ment (stucco)  which  would  otherwise  prevent  proper  setting. 
Wood  or  metal  furring  strips  fastened  12  to  16  inches  over 
the  paper-covered  sheathing  will  fur  out  the  wall  and  metal 
lath  and  allow  a  proper  key  for  the  stucco.  Stuccoed  walls 
are  a  better  protection  against  Exposure  fires  than  frame,  be- 
cause sparks  cannot  find  lodgement  between  crevices  and  it 
will  resist  heat  longer.  Dense  smoke  will  color  stucco,  and 
cleaning  is  more  difficult  than  painting  a  frame  building. 

STUDIOS — Hangings  in  studios  such  as  tapestries,  por- 
tierres,  portable  scenery,  pictures  on  easel.^,  spread  fire  rapr 

idly.  ''^n'^Z 

STUDS— The  small  size  (usually  2x4  inches)  intermedr 
iate  posts  in  walls  or  partitions.  \/'Z'<' 

STUFFING  BOX— The  small  boxing  at  the  end  of  a  steam 
cylinder  and  surrounding  the  piston  like  a  collar.  This  box 
is  usually  filled  with  flax  or  other  packing. 

SUBERINE — Organic  thickening  material  used  in  calico 
bleaching. 

SUBLIMATE— To  bring  by  heat  into  a  state  of  vapor, 
which  on  condensing  or  cooling  returns  to  a  solid  state. 
•  SUBROGATION  is  the  substitution  of  another  person  in 
the  place  of  a  creditor,  so  that  the  person  in  whose  favor 
it  is  exercised  succeeds  to  the  rights  of  tire  creditor  in  rela- 
tion to  the  debt.  More  broadly,  it  is  the  substitution  of  one 
person  in  the  place  of  another  whether  as  creditor  or  as  the 
.possessor  of  any  rightful  claim.     The   Court  of  Appeals  of 


4i0  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

New  York  State  defines  "subrogation"  as  the  "mode  which 
equity  adopts  to  compel  the  ultimate  payment  of  a  debt  by 
one  who  in  justice,  equity  and  good  conscience  ought  to  pay 
it."  In  the  fire  insurance  business,  the  operation  of  sub- 
rogration  is  used  in  payment  of  fire  claims  to  mortgagees. 

SUGAR  in  nature  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  although  it  cannot  be  made  by  mixing  these  in- 
gredients together. 

SUGAR  MANUFACTURING— In  obtaining  sugar  from 
the  cane,  the  juice  is  fiVst  pressed  out  between  heavy  iron 
rollers.  This  juice  is  then  cleaned  of  most  of  its  impurities, 
and  is  boiled  down  to  such  a  degree  that  the  sugar  will 
crystallize  as  it  cools.  While  this  crystallization  is  going  on, 
a  syrup  trickles  from  the  sugar  and  this  is  molasses.  The 
sugar  crystallizes  in  grains,  forming  the  common  brown 
sugar.  To  make  it  white  it  requires  additional  purifying 
processes. 

SUGAR  REFINING — Requires  the  continuous  movements 
of  the  sugar  in  either  liquid  or  solid  form  through  the  vari- 
ous conveyors,  boiling  pans,  filters,  chutes  and  driers.  The 
process  consists  of  mixing,  filtering,  open  boiling,  purifying 
through  bone  black,  vacuum  boiling,  molding,  open-air  dry- 
ing and  rotary  driers,  cutting,  grinding  and  packing.  The 
nature  of  the  processes  make  necessary  many  large  open- 
ings through  the  floor  which  cannot  be  cut  off.  The  char- 
house  where  the  bone  black  is  prepared  should  be  in  sepa- 
rate cut-off  building.  Sugar  and  filter  bags  should  be  dried 
outside  of  the  building.  The  drying  process  should  always 
be  carefully  noticed  by  the  inspector.  The  grinding  pro- 
duces a  dust  hazard.  Only  competent  underwriters  should 
accept  this  business. 

Sugar  Refinery  (P2Ui-house) — Sugar  pumped  from  char- 
house  in  semi-liquid  state  to  receiving  tanks,  filtered,  boiled 
in  vacuum  pans  and  steam  kettles,  impregnated  with  sulphur 
fumes,  then  to  mixers  and  to  centrifugal  extractors  where 
liquid  is  extracted  and  then  to  storage  bins,  and  next  to  sepa- 
rators and  granulators  (heated  by  hot  air),  screened,  bagged  or 
barrelled  or  sent  to  cube  presses  where  it  is  pressed  into  cube 
form,  dried  by  steam  or  hot  air  and  boxed.  Sugar  is  also  pul- 


SUGAR    REFINING  451 

verized  or  powdered.  Fires,  due  to  dust  and  friction  of  ma- 
chinery at  pulverizers  and  powdering  machines  are  frequent. 
As  these  machines  have  suction  blower  system,  fires  may  be 
spread  from  floor  to  floor.  Dust  hazard  also  present  at 
granulators  and  conveyors.  The  nature  of  the  business  re- 
quires numerous  ducts,  pipe  openings,  hoppers  and  machin- 
ery set  through  floors  which  cause  fires  to  spread  rapidly. 
Sulphur  storage  should  be  in  separate  fireproof  compartment. 
Fires  cause  considerable  loss  from  dirt,  etc.,  to  sugar  in  bins, 
open  pans  or  evaporators. 

Sugar  refinery  fire,   N.   Y.   Board   report.   May  25,   1911. 

The  fire  shows  clearly  the  hazard  attending  the  pulveri- 
zation of  sugar  and  the  need  for  conducting  this  process  in 
a  separate  building  or  the  process  should  be  conducted  in  a 
section  cut  off  by  12-inch  fire  walls  without  direct  openings 
to  the  other  buildings.  The  outer  unexposed  wall  prefer- 
ably to  be  of  light  material  such  as  plaster  on  wire  lath  or 
terra-cotta  blocks,  so  that  the  force  of  any  explosion  may 
be  vented  outward.  No  dust  room  should  be  used.  Dust 
from  granulators  and  pulverizers  should  be  settled  by  spray- 
ing in  an  enclosed  chamber  of  incombustible  material  thus 
eliminating  the  hazard  of  dust  rooms  and  dust  tubes.  All 
pulverizing  mills  should  be  equipped  with  magnets.  Sugar 
bins  should  be  of  incombustible  material. 

SUINT — The   natural  grease  of  wool. 

SULFONAL  is  unsafe  in  a  chlorate  mixture. 

SULPHATE — Sulphuric  acid  compound. 

SULPHATE  OF  AMMONIA— Made  by  neutralizing  di- 
luted sulphuric  acid  with  carbonate  of  ammonia. 

SULPHATE  OF  COPPER— Composed  of  sulphur,  oxygen 
and  copper.  Used  in  dry  batteries,  etc.  Made  from  copper 
(usually  scrap)  sulphuric  acid  and  water.  Process  is  steam 
as  a  rule. 

Sulphuric  acid  is  emptied  into  a  lead-lined  wood  tank  from 
which  it  is  pumped  to  a  wood  tank  lined  with  vitrified  brick 
and  called  a  pump  tank.  Into  this  tank,'  copper  is  dumped 
where  a  water  spray  forms  a  mixture  of  copper,  water  and 
acid.  This  mixture  is  then  pumped  to  the  oxidizing  tank  in 
order  to  obtain  the  proper  strength,  then  passed  over  to  the 


452  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

crystallizing  tanks  (which  resemble  plating  tanks  with  cop- 
per strands  at  intervals)  where  the  sulphate  of  copper  crys- 
tals form  and  adhere  to  the  copper  strands.  The  crystals 
are  then  taken  from  the  copper  strands  and  placed  on  top 
of  an  open  dryer  with  perforated  top  and  air  blast  below. 
The  finished  product  is  then  barrelled  and  shipped.  The  pro- 
cess is  usually  classed  non-hazardous. 

SULPHATE  OF  LIME— Lime  and  sulphuric  acid. 

SULPHATE  OF  MAGNESIA— Magnesia  and  sulphuric 
acid. 

SULPHATE  OF  SODA— Soda  in  sulphuric  acid. 

SULPHATE  OF  ZINC— Is  white  vitriol. 

SULPHATING— Changing   chlorides   into   sulphates. 

SULPHIDE — Compound  of  sulphur  with  a  metal. 

SULPHONIC  ACID— Used  in  aniline  color  works  by 
treating  aniline  oil  or  naphthalene  with  sulphuric  acid  in 
closed,  steam  or  gas-heated  kettles,  diluted,  washed  and  fil- 
tered. May  nitrate  same  with  sodium  nitrate  and  sulphuric 
acid  or  nitration  mixture.  Can  be  converted  into  sublime- 
beta-naphthol,  an  intermediate  product. 

SULPHUR— Ignites  at  about  500  deg.  F.  When  mixed 
with  oxidizing  agents,  such  as  potassium  or  sodium  chlorates 
or  nitrates,  becomes  explosive.  Is  highly  inflammable;  when 
well  ignited  burns  fiercely,  but  is  not  subject  to  sponta- 
neous combustion  except  when  mixed  with  other  chemicals. 
Explosions  occur  in  grinding  operations  due  to  friction  of 
machinery  and  dust.  Difficult  fires  to  fight  owing  to  sul- 
phur fumes.  Firemen  must  wear  masks  in  fighting  these 
fires.     See  Sulphur  Extracting  Factories. 

SULPHUR  BLACK— A  dye  used  in  the  hosiery  trade. 
It  is  prepared  as  follows:  A  liquid  called  monochlor-benzol 
is  made  by  passing  chlorine  gas  through  benzol.  This  is 
then   converted   by   nitrition   into   di-nitrochlor-benzol. 

SULPHUR  BLEACHING— See   Bleaching  Rooms. 

SULPHUR  DIOXIDE— Formed  by  burning  sulphur  or 
iron  pyrities  in  air.     Non-inflammable. 

SULPHUR  AND  IRON  PYRITES  are  burned  in  what 
are  known  as  sulphur  burners  (brick-set  furnaces  with  iron 
doors)  until  the  fumes  go  to  the  Glovers  tower  (which  is  a 


SULPHUR  EXTRACTING  FACTORIES  4S3 

lead  tank  lined  with  an  acid  brick)  to  cool.  The  fumes  then 
go  to  the  sulphuric  acid  chambers  which  are  lead  tanks  with 
outside  frame  crating,  where  they  are  converted  into  sul- 
phuric acid. 

SULPHUR  EXTRACTING  FACTORIES  are  filled  with 
huge  boilers  (usually  oil  fuel),  which  heat  water  to  nearly 
335  deg.  F.  This  is  pumped  down  into  the  ground  through 
pipes  at  a  pressure  of  125  lbs.  It  melts  the  sulphur  beds 
which  forces  the  sulphur  to  the  surface  by  compressed  air. 

SULPHURETTED  HYDROGEN  contains  sulphur  and 
hydrogen. 

SULPHURIC  ACID  MANUFACTURING— Plants  usual- 
ly consist  of  three  connecting  buildings,  known  as  burner 
room,  tower  building,  and  chamber  building  with  an  ad- 
joining shed  used  for  the  storage  of  pyrites. 

SULPHURIC  ETHER— Very  inflammable. 

SUMAC — The  powdered  leaves  and  bark  of  an  Indian  tree. 
Used  in  tanning.     See  Tanneries. 

SUMMER — A  large  piece  of  timber  supported  by  piers 
or  posts;  when  it  supports  a  wall  it  is  called  a  brest-summer 
or  bressummer. 

SUMMER  PIECE— The  wood  or  sheet  covering  placed 
in  front  of  and  covering  a  fireplace  opening.  Often  times, 
rubbish  or  paper  will  be  found  back  of  it. 

SUMP  OR  SUMPT— A  low  enclosure  or  pit  to  catch 
waste  water. 

SUN'S  RAYS  focused  through  imperfect  prism  or  bull's- 
6ye  glass  such  as  in  skylights  have  ignited  celluloid  goods, 
clothing,  etc. 

SUPERHEATER— Used  at  pitch  kettle  in  brev/eries  for 
superheating  steam  coils  to  melt  out  all  old  pitch  from 
kegs.     See  Breweries. 

SUPERIOR  CONSTRUCTION— See  Fireproof. 

SURBASE — The  inside  horizontal  moulding  on  wall  near 
floor. 

SURGEONS*  LIGATURES— Made  of  catgut,  treated  with 
chloroform  and  hermetically  sealed  with  wax  in  glass  tubes. 
Blow-pipes  are  used  for  heating  the  sealing  wax.  As  the 
heat  is  applied  near  the  mouth  of  the  tube,  a  certain  amount 


454  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

of  chlorine  gas  is  generated  by  reason  of  vaporizing  the 
chloroform.*  This  is  drawn  off  by  suction  pipes.  Culture  in- 
cubators, cuemol  dryers,  sterilizers,  alcohol  stills,  and  dry 
box  for  catgut  are  gas-heated. 

SURGICAL  INSTRUMENT  MANUFACTURING— Haz- 
ards of  metal  working,  annealing,  blow-pipes,  forges,  temper- 
ing, nickle-plating,  cleaning  metal  parts  with  benzine,  buff- 
wheels,  making  wood  handles.  At  times,  have  an  extensive 
laboratory  for  making  exhaustive  tests.  Stock  is  liable  to 
severe  water  or  moisture  damage  unless  wrapped  moisture 
proof.     See  Instruments. 

SURGICAL  SUPPLIES— See  Surgeons'  Ligatures. 

SURVEY — The  detail  report  of  a  risk  made  by  an  in- 
spector. 

SURVEYOR — A  title  applied  to  insurance  inspectors.  See 
Inspectors. 

SWARF — A  trade  term  for  borings  from  iron  or  steel. 

SWEATING  HAY— See  Hay. 

SWEAT-BAND  MANUFACTURING— They  are  made  of 
leather.  Use  cutting  machines,  perforators,  embossing 
presses,  rubber  cement.     Poor  fire  record  class. 

SWEAT  SHOPS— A  name  given  to  the  clothing  manu- 
facturing class  doing  contract  work,  i.  e.,  making  up  the  gar- 
ments from  goods  belonging  to  dealers  and  sent  them  already 
cut  to  size,  and  employing  piece-workers.  Cheap  labor  is 
employed  and  the  shops  are  usually  untidy.  Smoking,  in- 
dividual motors  at  machines,  cracked  pot  stoves  are  the  main 
hazards.  See  Clothing  Manufacturers;  see  Smoking;  alsa 
"Goods  in  Hands  of." 

SWEEP  SMELTERS— Trade  name  for  smelters  who  buy 
up  the  sweepings  of  gold  and  silversmiths,  and  refine  it  to 
reclaim  the  precious  metal.  The  setting  of  furnaces  and 
kettles,  should  be  according  to  standard  rules. 

SWING  SAW — A  woodworking  machine  with  the  saw  in 
the  centre  of  a  flat  table  or  stand,  operated  by  swinging  back 
and  forth. 

SWITCHBOARDS  in  telephone  exchanges  form  consid- 
erable of  the  value  and  should  always  be  brought  out  in  the 
inspector's  report. 


SYPHO-CHEMICAL    SYSTEM  455 

SWITCHBOARD      MANUFACTURING— Hazards      are 

power-cutting  and  drilling  machines  for  marble  and  slate 
slabs.  Machine  shops,  plating,  lacquering,  enameling,  buffing, 
testing  with  high  voltage  electric  current  and  packing  ma- 
terial. 

SYNAGOGUES — Same  hazards  as  schools  and  churches. 
Scrolls,  vestments,  parchments,  etc.,  while  susceptible,  offer 
good  insurance  as  all  efforts  are  made  to  recover  them  in 
case  of  fire.  Many  of  the  scrolls  are  priceless  and  cannot 
be  duplicated.  Smoking  and  candles  at  altars  constitute  the 
principal  hazards.     See  Churches. 

SYNTHETIC  PERFUMES— Those  derived  from  coal  tar 
instead  of  essential   oils. 

SYPHO-CHEMICAL  SPRINKLER  SYSTEM— Manu- 
factured by  the  Sypho-Chemical  Corporation.  Protection 
from  this  system  consists  of  a  series  of  sprinkler  pipes  and 
heads  covering  every  portion  of  the  building's  interior  just 
like  a  regular  sprinkler  system.  These  pipes  are  filled  with  cal- 
cium chloride,  a  non-freezing  solution,  which  also  has  fire  ex- 
tinguishing qualities.  The  supply  tank  will  usually  be  placed 
in  the  basement  though  it  may  be  set  elsewhere  if  that  lo- 
cation is  not  suitable.  This  supply  tank  is  filled  with  bi- 
carbonate of  soda  solution.  Attached  to  it  is  a  syphon  cham- 
ber containing  charges  of  sulphuric  acid.  At  the  top  of  the 
riser  pipe  which  extends  above  the  roof  is  an  expansion 
chamber  which,  like  the  pipes,  is  filled  with  calcium  chloride. 

Method  of  Operation — When  a  sprinkler  head  is  opened 
by  heat  the  first  discharge  is  the  calcium  chloride  which  is 
always  in  the  pipes.  The  fall  of  this  liquid  in  the  expan- 
sion chamber  causes  a  suction  which  is  transmitted  to  the 
acid  syphons,  causing  a  discharge  of  sulphuric  acid  into  the 
bicarbonate  of  soda  solution.  Chemical  force  then  sends  the 
extinguishing  fluid  through  the  pipes  as  through  the  dis^ 
charge  hose  and  nozzle  of  a  soda  and  acid  fire  extinguisher. 
The  entire  operation  is  completed  in  a  few  seconds.  The 
system  is  also  equipped  to  turn  in  fire  alarms  and  warning 
signals  when  tampered  with.  It  is  claimed  for  this  system 
that  it  will  make  practical  the  sprinklering  of  smaller  build- 
ings and  manufacturing  plants.     Special  emphasis  is  placed 


456 


INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


on  the  efficient  fire  extinguishing  qualities  of  a  soda  and 
acid  solution.  One  sprinkler  company  has  announced  that 
it  does  not  sell  the  system,  but  sells  the  service  of  its  pro- 
tection in  consideration  of  an  annual  charge  based  upon 
the  area  to  be  protected. 

TABLES — To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  multiply 
the  diameter  by  3.1416. 

To  find  diameter  of  a  circle  multiply  circumference  b> 
.31831. 

To  find  area  of  a  circle  multiply  square  of  diameter  by 
.7854. 

To  ascertain  the  capacity  of  a  cylindrical  tank — Ex- 
ample: Tank  is  eight  feet  high,  ten  feet  'diameter  at  base, 
eight  feet  diameter  at  top.  Take  mean  diameter  which  is 
nine  feet.  Square  the  diameter  (9  times  9)  times  .7854  equals 
the  square  feet  of  diameter  times  eight  feet  (height)  which 
equals  the  cubic  feet  times  7.48  (gallons  in  cubic  foot  of 
water);   the  total  is  capacity  of  tank  in  gallons. 

Table  Showing  Dimensions  and  Capacity  of  Standard 
Water  Tank: 


Diameter 

H 

eight 

Cap 

acity 

6  feet 

0 

inches 

5  feet 

11  inches 

1000 

gals. 

8  " 

6 

5  ' 

11   " 

2000 

10  " 

3 

5  ' 

11   " 

3000 

11  " 

9 

5  ' 

11   " 

4000 

13  " 

3 

5  ' 

11   " 

5000 

8  " 

3 

7  ' 

11   " 

2500 

10  " 

3 

7  ' 

11   " 

4000 

12  " 

5 

7    ' 

11   " 

6000 

10  " 

4 

9  ' 

11   " 

5000 

12  " 

5 

9  ' 

11   " 

7500 

11  " 

10 

11  * 

10   " 

8000 

13  " 

3 

11  ' 

10   '' 

10000 

16  " 

0 

11  ' 

10  '' 

15000 

18  " 

3 

11  ' 

10   " 

20000 

20  " 

2 

11  ' 

10   " 

25000 

28    " 

6 

11  ' 

10   " 

50000 

SYPHO-CHEMICAL    SYSTEM  457 

Cylindrical  Tank  with  Round  Bottom — To  find  the  capacity 
in  gallons  of  the  hemispherical  portion  of  a  steel  cylindrical 
tank,  cube  the  diameter  of  the  tank  (11x11x11)  and  multi- 
ply by  1.96. 

Rectangular  Tank — The  capacity  of  a  rectangular  tank  in 
gallons  is  found  by  multiplying  its  inside  length,  breadth  and 
height  together  (to  find  cubic  contents),  and  dividing  this 
result,  if  in.  inches,  by  231,  or  multiplying  it,  if  in  feet,  by 
7.4805.  Example:  Tank  eight  feet  by  eight  feet  by  eight 
feet.  Ascertain  cubic  feet  by  multiplying  eight  times  eight 
times  eight,  equals  512  cubic  feet,  times  7.48  (gallons  in  cubic 
foot  of  water),  equals  capacity  of  tank  in  gallons. 

Amount  of  water  necessary  for  gravity  and  pressure  tanks 
in  sprinklered  risks — Example:  A  six-story  and  basement 
building;  add  the  number  of  heads  required  for  each  floor 
and  divide  by  seven,  (number  of  floors  including  basement) 
to  get  the  average,  number  which  we  will  say  is  150  heads. 
Allow  100  gallons  of  water  for  each  head,  i.  e.,  150  times 
100  equals  15000  gallons  for  gravity  tanks  and  one-half  that 
.amount  or  7500  gallons  for  pressure  tank.  Pressure  tanks 
should  be  two-thirds  full  of  water  and  one-third  full  of  air 
under  pressure.  Another  way  to  figure,  producing  the  same 
result  would  be  to  average  the  number  of  heads  per  floor 
(150)  and  take  one-quarter  (the  number  which  might  be  ex- 
pected to  operate  at  one  fire)  which  equals  37.5  heads.  Al- 
low 20  gallons  of  water  a  minute  for  each  head  (20  times 
37.5)  which  equals  750  gallons  per  minute.  For  a  fire  of 
twenty  minutes  duration  (length  of  time  of  average  small 
fire)  multiply  750  by  20  which  equals  15,000  gallons  for  grav- 
ity tank  and  one-half  that  amount  for  pressure  tank. 

Communicating  Buildings — Two  buildings  may  communi- 
cate in  a  standard  manner,  i,  e.,  with  approved  fire  doors  at 
each  side  of  each  opening.  One  building  may  have  a  floor 
area  of  5,000  square  feet,  and  the  other  10,000  square  feet. 
The  size  of  tanks  in  such  a  case  would  be  that  required  for 
the  largest  cut-ofif  section  (10,000  square  feet)  which  will 
be  considered  by  most  rating  bureaus  sufficiently  large 
enough  to  supply  both  sections.     See  Pressure. 


TAILORS'  TRIMMINGS— Consist  of  buttons,  piece 
goods,  ornaments  for  cloaks  and  suits,  braids.  Usually  kept 
in  tills  or  pasteboard  boxes. 

TALLOW — A  solid  fat  extracted  from  the  suet  of  beef 
or  sheep.     Melting  point  115  to  121  deg.  F. 

TANKAGE  (dried  blood) — The  waste  material  from  ren- 
dering plants.  Used  in  fertilizer  plants.  Non-hazardous,  non- 
inflammable.     See   Extracting   Plants. 

TANK  FIRES— If  the  contents  of  a  tank  is  on  fire,  it  can 
usually  be  extinguished  if  the  cover  is  quickly  put  on  as  this 
shuts  off  the  supply  of  oxygen,  providing  the  cover  is  tight- 
fitting.     See  Oil  Tanks. 

TANNERIES — Process  consists  of  tanning,  coloring, 
stuffing,  oiling,  drying,  finishing,  embossing.  Some  plants  ex- 
tract grease  from  wool  by  naphtha  process.  Fires  are  apt 
to  take  place  in  any  of  these  processes.  Lime  and  tan  pits, 
storage  of  hides  and  pickled  skins  should  not  be  in  main 
building.  All  storehouses  should  be  detached.  Dry  rooms 
are  usually  heated  by  hot  air  blown  from  steam  coils.  If 
fans  are  used  in  dry  rooms  they  should  be  self-oiling  to  pre- 
vent overheated  bearings.  In  oiling  and  stuffing,  grease  is 
used  which  should  be  heated  by  steam.  Floors  become  very 
oily  from  dripping  hides  hung  up  after  oiling.  Lime  should 
be  slacked  outside  of  building.  Fleshings  and  scrapings  are 
subject  to  spontaneous  combustion.  Buff  wheels  should  have 
blowers.  Hair  and  wool  should  be  dried  in  iron  textile 
dryers.  Lamp-black  should  be  stored  outside  of  main  build- 
ing free  from  dampness.  Bark  mill  (grinding  bark)  should 
be  detached.  In  writing  use  and  occupancy  it  is  well  to  re- 
member that  tanning  is  a  continuous  process.  Small  fires 
may   stop   entire   process.     Tanning   liquors   are    spoiled   by 

458 


TAR   PAPER    MANUFACTURING  459 

water  (which  would  happen  if  a  fire  occurred)  in  the  leach 
house,  and  a  fresh  supply  of  liquor  is  not  always  available. 
See  Hides;  see  Tanning;  also  Skins. 

TANNERS — Some  use  a  compound  of  paint  containing 
pyroxilin  or  gun-cotton  dissolved  in  amyl  acetate. 

TANNERS*  OIL — A  by-product  of  the  operation  of  the 
tannery. 

TANNIN  occurs  very  vividly  in  nature  as  a  constituent 
of  many  barks,  leaves  and  wood.  Used  for  tanning  pur- 
poses. 

TANNING— Is  done  in  three  different  ways:  (1)  With  tan 
bark  extracts  and  other  vegetable  substances  containing  tan- 
nin. (2)  With  alum  or  bichromate  of  potash  and  other  min- 
eral salts.  (3)  By  impregnating  or  *'shamoying"  the  raw 
skin  and  oil.     See  Tanneries. 

TANQUA  NUTS— A  product  of  South  America;  are  used 
for  making  vegetable  ivory  buttons. 

TAR  is  obtained  as  a  residue  from  wood  distillation. 
Fires  in  this  material  can  be  readily  extinguished  by  covering 
with  sand.     Water  will  scatter  the  flames. 

TARCOLINE — A  benzine  substitute  classed  as  non-vola- 
tile. 

TAR  PAPER  while  cooling  after  being  made,  sometimes 
takes  fire  spontaneously  due  to  chemical  changes.  Fires  in 
this  stock  burn  fiercely. 

TAR  PAPER  MANUFACTURING— Coating  is  a  heavy 
coal  tar  oil  containing  impure  carbolic  acid,  anthracene  and 
naphtha.  The  liquid  will  not  flash  at  ordinary  temperature, 
but  the  vapor  given  off  during  coating  process  is  inflam- 
mable. The  "saturating"  machine  consists  of  a  steam-heated 
tank  containing  the  coating  material  through  which  is 
passed  the  felt  paper.  A  rack,  supported  by  an  iron  frame, 
forces  the  paper  into  the  coating  material.  A  coated  and  an 
uncoated  roll  of  paper  are  then  pressed  together.  Fires 
have  occurred  from  static  electricity  igniting  the  fumes  at  the 
machine.  Susceptible  stocks  in  the  neighborhood  of  these 
plants  are  likely  to  suffer  a  severe  loss  o'n  account  of  pun- 
gent odors  from  burning  tar.     See  Tobacco. 

TARPAULIN — A    waterproof    canvas    used    for    covering 


460  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

merchandise.  It  is  usually  coated  with  linseed  oil.  Those 
used  by  the  fire  patrol  to  cover  stocks  in  case  of  fire  are 
made  of  brown  twill  and  given  two  coats  of  a  preparation 
composed  of  linseed  oil  mixed  with  lithia.  It  takes  120  days 
to  dry. 

TAR  POTS,  boiling  over,  have  caused  frequent  fires  in 
buildings  in  course  of  construction.  When  on  fire,  should 
be  smothered  with  sand.  Water  will  scatter  the  burning 
tar. 

TARTARIC  ACID— Made  from  crude  argol  or  tartar,  or 
from  the  mass  remaining  after  wine  is  removed  from  the 
casks.  The  mass  is  pressed  and  dried  and  used  as  a  basis 
for  making  cream  of  tartar. 

TAXIDERMISTS— Stock  consists  of  stuffed  birds  and 
animals  and  is  very  susceptible  to  fire,  smoke  or  water.  Use 
glue,  cement,  excelsior  and  hair,  wood  for  frames  and  shel- 
lac. For  museum  work  on  large  animals  the  skin  is  placed 
on  a  model  of  plaster  of  paris  reinforced  with  iron  and  wood 
strips.  The  clay  is  put  on  about  an  inch  thick,  then  shel- 
laced and  the  skin  glued  on.  Glass  or  celluloid  eyes  are 
inserted  and  nose  and  mouth  retouched  with  wax.  Hand 
carpenter  shop,  glue  and  wax  heating,  shellacing  and  stuffing 
material  are  main  hazards. 

TAX  LIEN  INTEREST  (Double  the  Regular  Fire  Rate) 
— The  form  should  read  as  follows: 

On  the  tax-lien  interest  of  the  assured  in  the  building 
situate  No 

It  is  especially  understood  and  agreed  that  it  is  the  intention 
of  this  insurance  to  cover  the  assured's  tax-lien  interest  in 
the  above-mentioned  property,  the  nature  of  such  interest 
being  transfer  of  a  tax  by  virtue  of  the  assignment  from  the 
City  of  New  York  to  collect  taxes,  assessments  and  water 
taxes. 

It  is  mutually  understood  and  agreed  that  if  the  above- 
described  building  is  totally  destroyed  by  fire  or  damaged 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  must  be  demolished  in  order  to 
comply  with  any  law  or  ordinance  of  the  city,  or  the 
owner  and  or  the  mortgagees  elect  not  to  repair,  then  this 
company  shall  pay  the  assured  the  full  sum  hereby  insured. 


'.'I^ITIAV- 


TAXPAYERS  461 


or  such  a  sum  as  would  be  sufficient  to  reimburse  the  as- 
sured for  whatever  actual  loss  he  ma-y  have  sustained  by- 
reason  of  such  total  or  partial  destruction,  this  sum  in  case 
of  disagreement  to  be  determined  by  appraisement  in  the 
manner  provided  for  in  the  conditions  of  the  policy. 

It  is  further  understood  and  agreed  that  whenever  this 
company  shall  pay  the  assured  any  sum,  this  company  shall 
to  the  extent  of  such  payment,  be  thereupon  legally  subro- 
gated to  all  the  rights  of  the  assured  under  such  a  tax-lien 
assignment  (or  at  its  option,  in  the  event  of  the  full  sum 
hereby  insured  being  paid  to  the  assured,  receive  an  as- 
signment and  transfer  of  such  tax-lien)  to  the  extent  of  the 
payment  made  by  this  company. 

TAXPAYERS — A  term  sometimes  applied  to  a  row  of  one 
or  two-story  buildings  erected  for  store  purposes-"'and  built 
to  derive  enough  rent  to  pay  for  taxes  until  such  time  as 
a  higher  building  is  erected  or  the  property  is  sold. 

TAWING— Leather  treated  with  alum  and  salt. 

TEA — Almost  as  susceptible  to  smoke  or  water  damage 
as  tobacco. 

TEAK — A  very  durable  wood  for  all  work  that  is  exposed 
to  the  weather.     It  contains  a  resinous  oil. 

TEA  RISKS— The  main  hazard  is  cleaning.  A  motor 
blower  "blender  and  dust  remover"  is  used  which  should 
have  an  enclosed  fan  with  suction  to  draw  off  the  dust  to 
outer  air. 

TEAR-OFFS  are  the  portions  of  the  hide  or  skin  which 
are;forn  off  when  they  are  being  stretched.  Classed  as  rem- 
nants.    Used  for  horse  collars  and  corners  for  suit  cases. 

TEASING  MACHINE  OR  "DEVIL''— Used  to  break  up 
long  tow  or  fibre  to  prepare  it  for  the  cards. 

TEEL  OIL— Used  to  adulterate  olive  oil.     Non-hazardous. 

TELEGRAPH  OFFICES— Practically  an  office  occupancy 
with  telegraph  instruments.  Fires  caused  by  messenger  boys 
smoking  and  short  circuits. 

TELEPHONE  STATIONS— See  Power  Houses;  see 
Switchboards. 

TELL-TALES— On  sprinkler  equipments  should  be  sealed 
shut.     It  is  an  electrical  mechanism  by  means  of  which  an 


46i  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

alarm  is  sounded  when  water  in  gravity  or  pressure  tanks 
gets  below  the  prescribed  level. 

TEMPER — If  cast  iron  or  other  metals  are  relieved  of 
some  of  their  carbon  by  heating  to  "red  heat"  with  an  oxi- 
dising agent,  it  is  called  tempering. 

TEMPERATURE— This  question  is  of  vast  importance  to 
the  fire  underwriter.  The  ignition  temperature  varies  greatly 
with  different  materials  and  with  the  same  materials  under 
varying  conditions  of  pressure,  moisture,  fineness  of  division, 
etc.  It  does  not  require  the  actual  contact  of  a  flame  or 
spark  to  cause  a  fire.  Radiated  heat  alone  from  a  burning 
building,  if  intense  enough  may  ignite  nearby  property.  See 
Chemistry  of  a  Candle.     See  Illustration. 

From  observations,  temperatures  in  very  large  fires  aver- 
age slightly  over  2000  deg.  F. 

TEMPERING  STEEL  TOOLS— The  tools  are  heated  to 
white  heat  in  furnaces,  plunged  into  cold  water,  then  re- 
heated and  plunged  into  fish  oil. 

TEMPLATE — An  iron  plate  inserted  in  a  wall  on  which 
the  floor  beams  rest  to  distribute  the  load  over  a  wider  area. 

TEMPLET— The  outline  of  a  moulding  cut  out  of  wood 
or  sheet  iron. 

TEMPORARY  KEROSENE  OIL  BURNERS  (in  fire 
boxes  of  coal  stoves) — See  Kerosene  Burners. 

TENEMENTS — Buildings  classed  as  tenements  are  oc- 
cupied by  three  or  more  families.  The  New  York  City  law 
states  that  in  rooming  houses  or  other  buildings  occupied 
by  more  than  two  families  there  shall  be  no  cooking  unless 
the  buildings  are  classed  as  tenements.  This  is  to  offset  the 
number  of  fires  due  to  "light  housekeeping"  in  theatrical  or 
other  rooming  houses.     See  Apartments. 

TENON — A  projecting  tongue  fitting  into  a  corresponding 
cavity  called  a  mortise. 

TENONING  MACHINES— Woodworking  machines;  pro- 
duce considerable  refuse. 

TENSILE  STRESSES  tend  to  pull  fibres  of  materials 
apart. 

TENSION~See  Compression. 


THEATERS  46!5 

TERCERA — A  roofing  compound  made  of  chalk,  tar  and 
sand. 

TERPENES— Volatile  oils  of  coniferous  resins. 

TERRA  COTTA— A  fine  quality  of  clay.  The'highly  orna- 
mental terra-cotta  fronts  of  buildings  are  easily  damaged  by 
fire.  Porous  terra-cotta  tile,  used  in  building  construction, 
is  porous  as  compared  to  hard  or  dense  tile.  Sawdust  is 
used  in  its  manufacture  which  burns  out  leaving  pores.  Un- 
der intense  heat  the  faces  of  terra-cotta  tile  blocks  crack 
badly  and  fall  away.     See  Tile  Works. 

TERRORALL  (a  recent  discovery) — High  explosive,  more 
violent  than  T.  N.  T. 

TESSELATED  FLOOR— One  formed  of  small  blocks  of 
wood  or  mosaic  work. 

TEXACO  SPIRITS— A  benzine  substitute,  classed  as  non- 
volatile. 

TEXAS — A  large  frame  roof  structure  or  room,  smaller  in 
area  than  the  roof  itself,  having  one  or  more  stories  in  it. 
Sometimes  called  a  lantern. 

TEXENE — A  benzine  substitute,  class  non-volatile. 

THATGH  ROOFS— Consist  of  bundles  of  wheat  straw. 
Used  for  decorative  purposes  on  summer  cottages. 

THEATERS  (Stage  Building)— Usually  a  high  one-story 
building  equal  to  6  stories,  with  a  deep  basement;  walls 
should  be  of  brick  or  concrete  at  least  16  inches  thick,  para- 
petted  and  coped.  The  roof  should  have  a  steel  truss  with 
steel  beams  and  with  either  brick  or  terra-cotta  arches, 
spanned  about  5  feet.  The  roof  topping  should  be  tile  or 
plastic  slate,  the  cornice  brick  or  tile,  and  the  windows  of 
wired  glass  in  hollow  metal  sash  and  frames;  shutters,  if  any, 
to  be  standard  lock-jointed.  The  stage  floor  in  wings  each 
side  of  stage  to  be  of  brick,  tile  or  concrete  arch,  supported 
by  protected  iron  columns  or  brick  walls.  Wood  flooring  is 
permitted  only  on  the  working  part  of  the  stage  (center).  The 
fly  galleries,  which  are  located  at  the  sides  and  over  the 
stage,  should  be  constructed  of  steel  be^ms  and  fireproof 
arches.  These  are  used  to  handle  the  drops,  etc.,  and  are 
at  quite  an  elevation  above  the  stage  floor.  The  painters' 
bridge  is  always  located  against  the  rear  wall  of  the  stage, 


464 


INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 


connecting  the   fly  galleries.     This   should  be  of  steel   slats 
laid  about  2  inches  apart.     Above  the  fly  galleries,  about  5 
feet  under  the  roof  is  the  gridiron  (sometimes  called  rigging 
loft),  built  Entirely  across  the  stage. 
Proscenium    Wall — This    separates    the    real    hazard    of    a 


'c    i'l-vX'L'iiiitin    ^Methods. 

theater  from  the  auditorium  section.  The  proscenium 
wall  (between  the  stage  and  auditorium)  should  be  built 
of  brick  walls,  thickness  the  same  as  the  outside,  walls, 
never  less  than  '  12  inches,  with  4-inch  pilasters,  and 
should  extend  the  entire  w^dth  of  building.  It  must  start 
at  the  ground,  and  extend  at  least  4  feet  above  the  auditorium 
roof.     If  stage  building  is  the  highest,  wall  should  extend  4 


«ITI8[W>!       THEATERS  ■-'^'l&Vil  ^jj 

feet  above  the  same.  The  steel  girder  over  the  proscenium 
opening  must  be  protected  v^ith  at  least  2  inches  of  portland 
cement  concrete.  There  must  be  a  relieving  arch  in  the 
proscenium  wall  over  the  girder.  This  is  compulsory  as  it 
relieves  the  w^eight  of  the  wall  resting  on  said  girder.  The 
proscenium  wall  under  the  stage  should  extend  to  the  under 
part  of  the  stage  flooring  level,  or  flooring  should  be  cut 
away  the  width  of  the  curtain  and  filled  in  with  concrete. 
This  would  form  a  complete  separation  of  the  stage  floor 
from  the  apron.  The  only  openings  allowed  in  the  pro- 
scenium wall  should  be  the  curtain  opening  and  not  more 
than  two  others,  to  be  located  either  below  the  stage  level, 
or  one  on  either  side  of  the  stage  on  first  floor;  no  opening 
of  any  kind  should  be  permitted  above,  the  first  floor.  Open- 
ings are  not  to  exceed  21  square  feet,  each  with  3-inch  stan- 
dard double  lock-jointed,  tin-clad  fire  door  on  each  side  of 
the  wall.  Only  one  standard  automatic  fire  door  is  re.- 
quired  at  openings  to  musicians'  pit.  The  proscenium  frame 
should  be  of  non-combustible  material,  i.  e.,  wire  lath  Qr 
plaster,  stucco  or  concrete. 

Skylights  over  stage — Thin  glass  on  metal  frame  skylight, 
at  least  one-eighth  the  stage  area  should  be  installed.  To  be 
fitted  with  rolling  sash  and  glazed,  glass  ^  inch  thick  and 
no  one  to  exceed  300  square  inches.  Rolling  sash  should  bie 
fitted  with  brass  wheels  not  less  than  2^/2  inches  in  diameter; 
the  latter  should  roll  on  brass  plate  on  iron  frame  extending, 
entire  length  of  sash.  The  skylight  must  be  set  on  curb  so 
that  the  lowest  portion  of  the  tracks  will  be  not  less  than  12 
inches  above  the  roof.  The  angle  of  the  skylight  frame  to 
be  on  basis  of  1  inch  rise  to  1  foot  length.  The  skylights  to 
be  constructed  as  to  open  instantly  on  the  cutting  or  burning 
of  a  hempen  cord  which  should  be  arranged  to  hold  the  sky- 
light closed.  The  said  ropes  should  come  together  at  the 
first  fly  gallery  by  iron  triangle  and  then  by  single  rope 
directly  under  skylight  to  stage  floor.  Skylight  frames  to 
close  under  metal  hood  at  top,  sides  and  bottom  with  metal 
aprons  lapping  4  inches  downward  to  prevent  the  elements 
lodging  on  same.  See  Asbestos  Theatre  Curtains. — Doming^ 
"Weekly  Underwriter." 


466  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

THEATRICAL  TENANTS— Usually  not  attractive  unless 
well  known  and  at  the  top  in  their  profession.  See  Actors; 
see  Furnished   Room  Houses. 

THERMIT^Pulverized  aluminum  for  welding;  inflamma- 
ble.   See  Gas  Evolution. 

THERMOSTAT — A  self-acting  apparatus  for  regulating 
temperatures  by  the  unequal  expansion  of  different  metals 
by  heat.     See  Automatic  Alarm. 

THIMBLE  (sometimes  called  a  "sleeve")— Perforated  or 
plain,  single  or  double  pipe.  It  is  used  for  fire  protection 
when  placed  about  a  smoke  pipe  which  passes  through  a 
partition  or  roof.  Should  be  eighteen  to  thirty-six  inches 
larger  in  diameter  than  the  pipe  enclosed. 

THORIUM — A  powder,  metallic  in  nature,  obtained  by 
smelting  process  from  a  mineral  known  as  monozite.  Re- 
claiming thorium  from  discarded  mantles  or  clippings  from 
new  mantles.  They  are  very  brittle  and  are  received  from 
concerns  who  make  a  business  of  collecting  them.  The 
mantle  dust  is  washed  and  filtered  in  water  in  stone  tubs, 
then  boiled  in  thin  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water, 
then  treated  with  pickling  solution  of  anhydrous  ammonia, 
sulphuric,  acetic  or  nitric  acid.  Ammonia  is  added  to  crys- 
tallize the  sediment.  Product  is  then  in  crystal  form,  put  in 
porcelain  cups  and  dried  over  gas  burner.  Gas  heat  is  used 
for  boiling  and  drying  cups.     Storage  of  acids  important. 

THREAD  WORKS— The  thread  is  spun  at  spinning  mills 
and  skeined.  It  is  received  in  this  form  at  the  ordinary 
thread  mill  where  it  is  wound  on  spools.  The  spools  are 
either  wood  or  ''tubes"  made  of  cardboard.  Cotton  thread 
is  "silk  finished"  on  a  "dressing-machine."  The  thread  is  on 
reels  on  a  frame,  drawn  through  a  sizing  tank,  then  over  a 
hair-covered,  steam-heated  iron  drum  which  dries  and  pol- 
ishes the  thread,  which  is  respooled.  The  sizing  is  made  of 
gelatine  or  glue,  borax,  dextrine,  starch,  water,  cocoanut  or 
other  similar  oil.  The  sizing  kettle  should  be  steam-heated. 
The  steam  pipes  at  machine  are  apt  to  become  covered  with 
fine  dust  or  "fly"  from  the  thread  and  should  be  cleaned 
often. 

THROWSTER— One  who  throws,  twists  or  winds  silk. 


TIN  467 

TIE-BEAMS — Ties  that  are  also  subjected  to  a  transverse 
strain. 

TIGERS— See  Plush. 

TILE  WORKS— In  brick  and  tile  works,  driers  about  6 
feet  high,  8  feet  wide  and  100  feet  long  are  used,  built  of 
brick  and  iron  frame,  heated  by  furnace  at  one  end  and  below 
level  of  ^flooring  or  by  heat  passing  off  from  kilns.  Tile  or 
brick  is  put  on  boards,  called  ''pallets,"  placed  on  racks  on 
cars,  and  run  slowly  through  this  tunnel.  Fires  are  caused 
here  by  racks  becoming  very  dry;  alternating  moisture  and 
heat,  and  the  rapid  absorption  causes  the  wood  to  ignite 
spontaneously.  The  lowest  pallet  becomes  heated  very 
rapidly. 

TILLS  as  applied  to  stocks  refer  to  wooden  drawers  or 
bins. 

TIMBER — Heavy  timber  resists  fire  better  than  small  iron 
columns.  When  superficially  charred,  the  coating  does  not 
necessarily  weaken  the  timber. 

TIN — Recovering  tin  from  used  cans.  An  air-tight  masonry 
room  is  filled  with  cans,  and  warm  chlorine  gas  forced  into 
the  room,  which  unites  with  tin  and  forms  tin  chloride 
(highly  volatile).  The  gaseous  mixture,  (free  chlorine,  air 
and  vapor  of  tin  chloride)  passes  through  a  condenser 
where  the  tin  chloride  is  separated  from  the  other  gases, 
and  by  a  chemical  means,  pure  tin  is  precipitated. 

I.  C.  Tin — This  term  is  used  to  denote  the  covering  to 
lock-jointed  fire  doors.  I.  C.  tin  is  charcoal  iron,  i.  e.,  iron 
with  the  charcoal  removed. 

In  sheets,  tin  will  sustain  considerable  water  damage 
unless  each  sheet  is  thoroughly  dried  immediately  after  be- 
coming wet. 

TIN-CLAD  FIRE  DOORS— See  Standard  Fire  Doors. 

TINCTURE  OF  IRON  and  diluted  aqua  regia,  sometimes 
mixed  as  a  tonic,  gives  off  an  explosive  gas  which  has  been 
known  to  shatter  the  bottle. 

TINFOIL — Melted  pig  lead,  antimony,  and  block  tin.  The 
alloy  is  cast  in  slabs,  and  rolled  out  in  plates  or  sheets.  The 
machinery  consists  of  furnaces,  heavy  and  light  rolling- 
machines   and   cutters,   presses   for   coloring  and   printing. 


"4^  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

TIN  PLATE  consists  of  iron  or  steel  rolled  into  very  thin 
sheets,  coated  with  a  composition  of  tin  and  lead. 

TINSMITHS  have  caused  fires  in  buildings  by  leaving 
gasoline  torches  unattended  when  lighted.  In  shops,  may 
use  gas-heated  soldering  mufflers,  gasoline  torches,  sheet- 
metal  cutters;  paint, 

TITAN  POWDER— A  form  of  dynamite. 

TOBACCO — As  a  general  rule  tobacco  is  very  susceptible 
to  smoke  and  water.  Some  tobaccos  offer  practically  no 
salvage  as  in  the  case  of  Sumatra  leaf.  Havanna  filler  is 
tougher  and  offers  more  salvage  than  most  other  leaves.  The 
damaged  leaves,  however,  have  some  little  value  as  fertilizer. 

At  a  recent  fire,  in  a  burlap  bag  risk  adjoining  a  tobacco 
warehouse,  tons  of  water  were  poured  to  drown  the  fire.  The 
moisture  penetrated  the  walls  of  the  warehouse  and  a  large 
loss  was  paid  on  tobacco.  Tobacco  should  not  be  stored 
in  basements  against  the  walls  of  the  building.  See  Cigarette 
Factories;  see  Tar  Paper  Manufacturing. 

TOILET  ARTICLES  AND  PREPARATIONS— Work 
consists  of  making  cosmetics,  face  creams,  pomades,  nail 
buffers,  nail  polish,  wood,  celluloid  or  metal  articles  and 
packing  powders.  Use  cologne  spirits,  alcohol,  glycerine, 
Russian  white  oil,  vaseline,  petrolatum,  vegetable  oils,  and 
waxes  and  clay.  Hazards  of  woodworking,  metal  working, 
celluloid  working,  powder  grinders,  sifters  and  mixers; 
stoves  for  wax  and  oil  heating,  benzine  for  cleaning  metal 
parts,    painting    and    varnishing    wooden    parts. 

TOLUENE— Coal  tar  distillate,  boils  at  230  deg.  F.  Vat^Or 
very  inflammable,  smells  like  benzine,  but  not  as  dangerous 
to  handle.     Solvent  for  fats,  rubber  and  resins. 

TOLUOL — Is  a  chemical  substance.  It  is  the  basis  of  thfe 
explosive  called  tri-nitrotoluol,  more  familiarly  known  as  T. 
N.  T.  The  Ordnance  Department  of  the  United  States  Army 
says  that  this  is  the  best  explosive  for  our  use  in  the  war, 
ks  it  is  manufactured  and  transported  with  comparative  safety 
and  is  a  very  effective  destructive  agent. 

The  chief  source  of  toluol  are  the  retorts  of  the  ga§  com- 
panies throughout  the  country. 

So  great  is  the  demand  that  steps  are  being  taken  to  begin 


TOW  i^ 

the  recovery  of  toluol  from  every  gas  plant  in  the  Urlited 
States. 

]    What  that  means  is  vital.     Tqluol  to-day  is  v^hat  gunpow- 
der was  yesterday.     Sec  Toluene. 

TOOLS  AND  INSTRUMENTS  of  all  kinds,  if  polished, 
are  easily  damaged  by  water.  Their  value,  as  far  as  sale 
is  concerned,  is  thereby  lessened.  See  Hardware;  see  Cut- 
lery. 

TOPOGRAPHY  OF  LAND— Very  important  to  the  Un- 
derwriter in  considering  surburban  or  "out  of  town"  prop- 
erties. All  hilly  or  inaccessible  sections  should  be  noted  with 
advices  as  to  whether  fire  apparatus  can  reach  the  risk  and 
fire  hydrants  adequate,  also  kind  and  condition  of  roads. 

TOW — After  such  fibres  as  hemp,  jute  and  the  like,  are 
.put  through  the  cleaning  process,  the  residues  left  are  known 
as  tow,  a  ligneous  product  used  by  upholsterers.  Tow  is 
dangerous  inasmuch  as  it  will  glimmer  at  about  257  deg.  F. 
and  therefore  one  of  the  most  easily  kindled  of  fibres.  This 
material  in  large  piles  is  apt  to  give  off  certain  gases  during 
storage,  which  gases  when  mixed  with  dust  and  ignited 
by  contact  with  a  flame  produce  a  violent  explosion. 

TOY  CAPS  consist  of  small  portions  of  a  mixture  of 
antimony,  sulphide,  red  phosphorous  and  postassium  chlora,te 
between  two  layers  of  paper.  They  do  not  ignite  spon- 
taneously. 

TOY  TORPEDOES— Contain  red  phosphorus  and 
chlorates. 

TOYS,  (metal) — Manufacturing  machine  shop  hazard  with 
numerous  heavy  and  light  stamping  presses,  cheap  paints, 
soldering,  lacquering  and  japanning.     See   Celluloid. 

TRACK  TORPEDOES— Consist  of  hollow  discs  filled 
with  a  mixture  of  sulphur,  potassium  chlorate  and  sand  or 
gravel. 

TRADE  NAMES  often  hide  the  identity  of  the  owners 
who  may  have  bad  fire  record  or  poor  financial  record. 

TRADE  REPORTS— These  reports  usually  assist  the  Un- 
derwriter or  Examiner  to  intelligently  pass  or  reject  a  line. 
They  usually  give  a  brief  outline  of  an  assured's  business 
career  including  failures,  antecedents,   fires,   standing  in  the 


4r0  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

trade  and  credit.  See  Blank  Rating;  also  Branch  Stores  and 
Mercantile  Reports. 

TRAIL — The  pipe  from  the  reservoir  to  the  intake  of 
pump;  should  not  be  over  25  feet  long. 

TRANSEPT — One  of  the  lateral  members  or  projections 
between  the  nave  and  the  choir  of  a  church. 

TRANSFORMER— A  device  acting  by  induction  to  lower 
or  raise  the  voltage  of  an  electric  circuit. 

TRANSIT  CLAUSE— This  clause  covers  the  goods  being 
brought  to  or  from  lower  floors  of  a  fireproof  building  to 
those  occupied  by  the  assured.  When  writing  insurance  cov- 
ering contents  of  a  fireproof  building  (unless  sole  tenant), 
underwriters  require  the  floors  on  which  the  merchandise 
is  located  to  be  stipulated  in  the  policy. 

TRANSLUCENT  FABRIC— Is  a  wire  gauge  cloth  cov- 
ered by  a  layer  of  solidified  linseed  oil  which  penetrates  be- 
tween the  meshes.  Used  for  skylights.  Process  consists 
of  dipping  the  wire  fabric  several  times  into  linseed  oil  until 
covered  to  the  required  thickness. 

TRANSOM — A  beam  over  the  opening  for  a  door.  Tran- 
som light  is  the  glass  window  above. 

TRANSPARENT  LEATHER— Ordinary  skins  are  shaved, 
cleaned,  stretched  on  frames  and  rubbed  with  glycerine, 
salicylic,  picric  and  boric  acids. 

TRANSPARENT  SOAP— Ordinary  soap  mixed  in  hot 
alcohol. 

TRANSVERSE  SECTION— A  drawing  showing  a  section 
across  the  object. 

TRAPPED — A  floor  opening  is  trapped  when  it  has  a  door 
which  can  be  raised  or  lowered  so  as  to  completely  close 
the  opening.  Automatic  traps  are  those  held  open  by  rope 
and  fusible  link. 

TRAP-ROCK— On  account  of  its  strength  and  its  fire-re- 
sisting properties,  is  considered  the  best  of  the  stones  for 
use  as  aggregate  in  concrete  making. 

TREATY  COMPANIES— Re-insurance  companies  who  by 
agreement  accept  a  percentage  of  lines  taken  by  a  company 
on  any  and  all  kinds  of  risks. 


TRIM  471 

TRESTLE — A  braced  framework  for  supporting  sprink- 
ler or  water  tanks,  stringers  of  bridges,  etc. 

TRIATOMIC   ALCOHOL— Glycerine. 

TRIM — Woodwork  used  for  wood  finish.  It  is  now  be- 
ing replaced  by  metal-covered  or  kalameined-covered  wood. 
Wood  trim,  in  fireproof  office  buildings  tends  to  cause  a  fire 
to  spread. 

TRIMMER — A  short  cross  timber  framed  into  two  joists 
to  sustain  the  ends  of  intermediate  joints.  Example — trim- 
mer in  arch  so  as  to  prevent  joists  from  entering  the  chim- 
ney breast. 

TRIMMINGS — Most  stocks  may  contain  bright  colors 
which  run  when  wet  or  the  goods  may  be  drawn  entirely 
out  of  shape.     Very  susceptible. 

TRI-NITRATING  is   a   very   hazardous   process. 

TRINITRO  BENZOL,  compound,  when  dry  is  a  high  ex- 
plosive. When  wet  with  not  less  than  20  per  cent,  water 
and  in  water-proof  containers,  may  be  shipped  as  inflamma- 
ble solid. 

TRINITROPHENOL  (or  picric  acid)— A  very  powerful 
explosive  used  in  military  work  under  the  name  of  Melinite, 
Lyddite  or  Shimmse.     (See  Nitro  Fenzole.) 

TRINITROTOLUOL  (T.  N.  T.)— A  pale,  yellowish  finely 
crystallized  substance  somewhat  resembling  brick  dust  or 
powdered  rosin,  made  by  treating  toluol,  one  of  the  lightest 
distillates  of  coal  tar  with  strong  nitric  acid  in  three  suc- 
cessive operations.  It  takes  fire  and  burns  at  about  480  deg. 
F.  When  heated  by  a  fire  it  may  explode  with  tremendous 
violence.     (W.  D.  Grier.) 

TRIPOLI — Buffing  wax,  composed  of  decomposed  silica, 
iron  oxide,  paraffine,  mineral  colors,  rosin,  lamp-black,  Vienna 
lime.  This  lime  is  unslaked  lime  with  40  per  cent,  magnesia, 
and  is  not  dangerous. 

TROCHAS  SHELLS  are  imported  from  Fiji  Islands;  used 
for  making  buttons. 

TROTTER  OIL — Made  by  boiling  sheep-  feet,  called  hair 
oil. 

TRUNKS  AND  BAGS,  (manufacturing)— Use  wood, 
leather,   imitation   leather,   fibreboard   or   fibre   for   covering. 


471  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

Woodworking  hazard,  glue  heating,  cabinet  work,  caul  boxes, 
dry-rooms,  veneering;  enamelling,  japanning,  painting,  var- 
nishing, using  benzine  as  thinner;  metal  working,  soldering. 
Celluloid  articles  for  trunk  accessories.  Shops  are  crowded, 
as  a  rule.     Fire  record  of  class  is  poor. 

TRUSS — Timbers  assembled  for  supporting  purposes. 

TUMBLER  (for  polishing  metal  or  other  wear)  is  usually 
a  barrel  in  a  horizontal  position  on  an  axis  with  sawdust, 
carborundum  or   sand  inside. 

TUNG  OIL— See  Chinese  Oil. 

TUNGSTATES  of  sodium,  potassium  and  molybdenum 
are  used  for  fireproofing  inflammable  material. 

TUNGSTEN— A  heavy  steel-gray  metallic  element.  Used 
extensively  in  making  incandescent  lamps.  It  is  a  deposit 
in  rock  formation.  It  is  blended  with  steel  for  use  in  armor- 
plate  and  projectiles;  as  a  mordant*  in  dyeing;  calico  print- 
ing; fireproofing  vegetable  fibres;  as  an  alloy  with  aluminum, 
copper,  nickel,  titanium  or  zirconium;  as  filaments  for  electric 
lamps. 

TURKISH  AND  OTHER  BATHS— The  setting  of  boiler, 
which  is  usually  high  pressure,  is  important,  also  clearance 
of  all  woodwork  around  pipes.  Majority  of  buildings  are 
converted  dwellings  or  of  similar  construction,  divided  into 
many  small  rooms.  Hazards  are  swinging  gas  brackets, 
portable  gas  radiators,  smoking  by  patrons,  dormitories. 

TURNOVER — A  business  term  applying  to  the  value  of 
the  produce  sold. 

TURPENTINE— Distilled  from  crude  resin,  the  sap  ol 
fir  or  pine  trees.  Flashes  at  103  or  104  deg.  F.  When  brought 
in  contact  with  a  mixture  of  muriatic  or  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids  it  TAKES  FIRE.  Adulterated  with  crude  petroleum 
and  benzine. 

An  odorless  turpentine  has  been  produced  from  sulphate 
turpentine,  a  product  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphate  pulp. 
Substitute  turpentines  are  usually  petroleum  distillates  with 
a  flash  point  below  80  deg.  F.  HHTTOHT 

TURPENTINE  (Mineral) — The  spirit  or  most  volatile 
part  of  the  native  rock  oils,  or  from  artificial  parafline  pre- 
pared from  coal  and  shales.  Very  volatile. 


TYPEWRITER   INKS  473 

TURPENTINE  OIL— Obtained  from  the  resinous  exuda- 
tions from  the  wood,  bark  or  leaves  of  pine  or  fir  trees.  It 
is  volatile,  giving  off  inflammable  vapors  at  about  95  deg. 
F.  Burns  with  a  smoky  flame  because  it  contains  consid- 
erable  carbon. 

TURPENTINE  TANKS— Several  fires  have  occurred 
where  tanks  were  being  filled  with  turpentine  which  was  being 
poured  through  a  brass  wire  strainer,  probably  from  static 
electricity.     See  Static  Electricity;  see  Oil  Tanks. 

TURPENTOLE— Distilled  from  parafiine;  highly  inflam- 
mable spirit.,,    ..  ; 

TURPINO  SPIRITS— Flash  112  deg.  F.;  an  acceptable 
benzine   substitute. 

TURPO    SPIRITS— Flashes    at   98i/4     deg.     F.    by     open 

cup  test.     Classed  as  volatile  and  inflammable. 

TURPOZINE— A  substitute  for  turpentine;  has  a  high 
flash  point.     Classed  as  non-volatile. 

TURPSITINE— Flash  105  deg.  F.  Classed  as  non-vola- 
tile. 

TUXY — The  thin  ribbon  which  contains  the  cordage  fibre 
is  known  as  the  tuxy. 

TWIN-BEAMS — Two  beams  of  same  dimensions  laid  side 
by  side  on  edge. 

TWIN-GIRDER— Same  as  twin-beam,  but  larger. 

TWO-WAY  HYDRANT  OR  FIREPLUG— One  which 
has  two  hose  connections.     See  Siamese. 

TYPE-CLEANING  COMPOUNDS— None  but  approved 
makes  should  be  used.     Many  contain  naphtha. 

TYPEWRITER  INKS,  CARBON  PAPER  AND  RIB- 
BON— Ink  factory  hazard.  Grinding  mills  for  ink,  steam 
kettles,  laboratory  testing,  mills,  mixers.  Use  lard  oil,  cot- 
tonseed oil,  alcohol,  benzine,  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  etc. 
Ribbon-winding  wheels  and  eyeletting  machines,  ribbon  ink- 
ers (cold),  knitting,  looms  for  weaving,  steam  baths,  drying 
machines  (gas  heat),  singeing  machines  (gas  blow-pipe  ar- 
rangement), extractor,  steam-heated  rolling-machines.  See 
Carbon  Paper. 


u 

UMBRELLA  MANUFACTURING— Work  consists  of 
making  sticks  or  handles,  wire  ribs,  cementing  handles  on 
sticks  and  covering  the  frame  with  fabric.  Handle  and  stick- 
making  involves  wood  and  metal-working  and  silversmith 
work.  The  handles  are  cemented  on  sticks  with  canauba 
wax,  varnished,  and  the  metal  parts  plated  and  buffed.  The 
fabric  is  sewed  by  hand  or  power-machines.  Sometimes  use 
benzine  for  removing  spots  from  fabric.  Write  this  class 
cautiously. 

UNBROKEN  AREA— An  area  with  no  subdivision  walls 
or  fire-resistive  partitions,  and  where  fire  could  have  a  full 
sweep.     See  Area  of  a  Building. 

UNDERGROUND  WORK— See  Contractors. 

UNDERMINE— To  excavate  beneath  anything.  This 
work  is  going  on  continually  in  subway-building. 

UNDER-PIN— Add  to  the  height  of  a  wall  already  con- 
structed by  excavating  and  building  beneath.  Also  to  intro- 
duce additional  support  of  any  kind  beneath  anything  already 
completed.     See   Builder's  Risk. 

UNDERTAKERS— Good  risks,  if  well  established.  In- 
spectors should  report  on  casket-lining,  stuffing,  embalming 
and  varnishing.  They  use  a  small  amount  of  muriatic,  acetic 
and  sulphuric  acids,  alcohol,  and  formaldehyde  in  embalm- 
ing work. 

UNDERWRITER— One  who  authorizes  the  lines  the 
company  will  accept,  and  passes  on  the  business  taken  by 
the  countermen.  Should  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  con- 
struction, hazards  and  losses.     See  Map  Clerk. 

UNDERWRITERS'  LABORATORIES— Tests  are  made 
to  establish  the  relative  fire  strength  of  materials  and  de- 
vices for  insurance  purposes.  It  is  an  institution  supported 
by  stock  fire  insurance  companies  of  the  United  States.     In- 

474 


UNDERWRITING  475 

spection  is  also  made  at  the  shops  of  manufacturers  and 
labels  issued  by  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories  as  evidence 
of  compliance  with  standards  are  affixed  to  the  appliances. 

UNDERWRITING— Increase  of  lines  and  resulting  pre- 
mium, rather  than  indiscriminate  cancellations,  is  what  pays. 
An  ideal  risk  is  scarce,  and  with  proper  regard  of  hazard  and 
line,  the  best  underwriter  is  one  who  uses  good  judgment 
in  selection  rather  than  wholesale  declinations.  Look  at  the 
risk  from  the  average  of  its  class. 

Successful  underwriting  requires  knowledge  of  hazards 
and  construction  from  personal  inspection,  familiarity  with 
local  conditions,  fire  and  loss  costs  o£  various  classes  of  risks, 
the  adequacy  of  rates,  trade  conditions,  and  common  sense. 

Conditions  and  hazards  in  all  manufacturing  processes 
change,  usually  for  the  better,  as  years  advance  and  a  more 
intimate  knowledge  is  had,  and  a  more  minute  study  of  pro- 
cesses is  made,  to  reduce  producing  costs.  Probably  the  best 
example  of  this  is  in  the  shoe  industry.  Only  a  short  time 
ago  this  class  was  tabooed  by  most  underwriters  on  account 
of  the  fire  record  of  the  class.  The  manufacturers  were 
charged  very  high  rates  and  only  small  lines  were  written 
by  individual  companies.  With  increased  knowledge  as  to 
hazards,  such  as  the  handling  of  rubber  cement  and  benzine, 
cutting-board  scrapings,  etc.,  the  hazards  and  also  the  fire 
loss  and  rates  were  greatly  reduced.  Breweries  and  wood- 
workers were  in  the  same  class.  They  now  show  a  profit  in 
underwriting.  See  Upper  Floor  Contents;  also  Accommoda- 
tion Line;  see  Authorizations;  also  Average  Risk. 

UNDISCLOSED  INTERESTS,  such  as  "for  account  of 
whom  it  may  concern,"  etc.,  should  always  be  investigated 
before  line  is  passed.     See  Enemy  Alien. 

UNEARNED  PREMIUM— That  portion  of  the  premium 
which  is  returned  to  the  insured  in  case  of  cancellation  of 
the  policy.  It  represents  the  premium  for  interim  between 
the  date  of  cancellation  and  date  of  expiration  of  the  policy. 

UNIT  SYSTEM  of  construction  is  making  each  building 
and  each  floor  of  each  building  a  separate  fire  risk. 

UNIVERSAL  MACHINE— A  woodworking  machine  of 
patented  type  capable  of  performing  different  kinds  of  work. 


476  INSPECTION    AND    UNDERWRITING 

In  general,  they  are  a  combination  of  jointers  and  borers 
with  mandrels  for  saws.  Produce  considerable  refuse  and 
should  have  blower  attachments. 

UNOCCUPIED  OR  VACANT  BUILDINGS.  Such  build- 
ings rapidly  depreciate  in  value.  Those  without  caretakers, 
especially  if  located  outside  of  protection,  are  not  considered 
favorably  by  most  companies.  Tramps  or  mischievous  boys 
may  gain  access  and  set  fire  to  the  building.    See  Vacancy. 

UNPROTECTED   IRON— See   Steel    (for   protection). 

UPPER  FLOOR  CONTENTS— Those  above  the  reach  of 
fire  departments  should  be  written  cautiously.  Hose  streams 
can  hardly  be  expected  to  be  effective  above  the  sixth  floor, 
consequently  firemen  usually  rely  on  the  standpipe  system  in 
the  building  for  upper  floor  fires,     See  Stocks. 

USNIC  ACID— A  yellow  dye  material. 

USE  AND  OCCUPANCY  INSURANCE  is  usually  in- 
tended to  protect  the  assured  against  the  loss  of  the  use  of 
premises,  also  to  cover  net  annual  profits,  general  main- 
tenance cost  to  the  extent  of  taxes,  heating  and  lighting,  and 
legal  liability  for  royalties  and  salaries  or. wages  which  may 
not  be  discontinued  by  reason  of  an  interruption  of  business 
by  fire.  This  class  of  business  is  intended  for  manufacturing 
concerns;  mercantile  establishments  usually  carry  profit 
insurance.  Use  and  occupancy  insurance  is  somewhat  diffi- 
cult to  understand  unless  you  make  a  specialty  of  this  form 
of  coverage.  It  is  desirable  that  the  words  "not  exceeding" 
appear  before  the  amount  per  day  to  be  agreed  upon  so  that 
the  form  will  not  be  a  "valued"  one;  also  that  the  words  "if 
the  property  mentioned  is  destroyed  by  fire"  instead  of  "if  the 
firm  is  destroyed  by  fire."  The  reason  for  the  above  being 
to  cover  only  the  property  mentioned  in  the  policy,  as  the 
firm  may  have  a  fire  in  another  location  which  would  in  turn 
affect  their  use  and  occupancy.  Should  the  assured,  while 
their  building  is  untenantable  as  the  result  of  fire,  conduct 
their  business  at  another  location  the  loss  to  the  insurance 
company  would  be  correspondingly  less,  because  the  profits 
made  by  the  assured  at  their  temporary  quarters  could  be 
deducted  when  final  adjustment  is  made,  and  this  feature 
should  be  incorporated  in  policy  forms. 


USE  AND  OCCUPANCY  INSURANCE  477 

It  is  well  to  avoid  risks  that  are  not  well  established  and 
managed  or  those  manufacturing  "fads"  or  catering  to  a  tem- 
porary trade.  Summer  resort  hotels,  concessions  at  sum- 
mer parks,  seasonable  business,  hotels  located  on  roads  which 
are  becoming  less  popular  with  motorists  or  situated  in  lo- 
calities which  have  lost  their  prestige  are  poor  for  use  and 
occupancy  insurance.  In  the  case  of  seasonable  trades,  the 
fire  may  occur  during  a  dull  season  and  the  fire  damage  be 
entirely  repaired  before  the  busy  season  has  resumed.  If  the 
concern  carries  use  and  occupancy  insurance,  the  companies 
might  be  obliged  to  pay  the  claim  even  though  no  actual  loss 
through  use  and  occupancy  had  resulted.  In  seasonable 
risks,  some  forms  specify  a  larger  amount  for  busy  months 
and  only  a  nominal  amount  for  dull  months.  The  following 
would  be  a  good  use  and  occupancy  proposition:  A  clock 
factory  of  good  mill  construction,  modern  machinery,  raw 
materials  being  mainly  brass  goods,  and  easily  obtainable; 
duplicate  power  system;  boilers  in  fireproof  section  cutoff  by 
approved  fire  doors.  A  line  of  $24,000  insurance  offered  would 
be.  divided  by  300  working  days  which  equals  $80  per  day. 
On  account  of  the  good  construction  and  splendid  arrange- 
ment of  the  factory  with  duplicate  power  plant,  cutoff  boiler 
room,  and  raw  materials  easily  obtainable,  this  plant  would 
probably  be  in  operation  again  inside  of  30  days. 

In  some  cases  the  building  and  contents  of  a  plant  may  not 
be  desirable  as  a  fire  risk  and  yet  may  be  a  good  use  and  oc- 
cupancy risk;  as  for  instance,  a  large  one-story  frame  planing 
mill  would  not  appeal  to  most  underwriters  as  a  fire  risk  on 
account  of  probably  suffering  a  total  loss  and  yet  the  use  and 
occupancy  might  only  suffer  a  20  per  cent.  loss.  The  build- 
ing could  be  erected  and  all  machinery,  being  modern  and 
purchasable  near  the  risk,  be  set  up  inside  of  two  months. 
The  following  are  examples  of  poor  use  and  occupancy  prop- 
ositions: $200  a  day  on  use  and  occupancy  of  a  hotel  having 
150  rooms  at  $2  per  room,  decline  unless  the  amount  is  $300  a 
day,  i.  e.,  150  times  $2.00  for  each  room.  Another  case  of 
note  was  the  recent  fire  in  a  lace  paper  factory  in  Brooklyn 
where  a  small  fire  put  the  boiler  and  engine  room  and  a  few 
6f  the  imported  dies  out  of  commission,  with  the  result  that 


476  INSPECTION   AND   UNDERWRITING 

the  manufacturing  was  stopped  for  about  two  months.  The 
loss  on  the  building  and  contents  did  not  amount  to  over 
$1,000,  while  the  use  and  occupancy  loss  amounted  to  eight 
times  that  figure.  Use  and  occupancy  insurance  is  written 
very  cautiously  during  war  times  on  account  of  shortage  of 
labor  and  inability  to  receive  raw  materials  and  machinery 
except  after  considerable  delay. 

The  principal  features  to  be  considered  are  construction; 
whether  sprinklered  or  not,  nature  of  occupancy;  average 
daily  output,  idle  periods,  market  favorable  for  steady  oper- 
ation, future  outlook,  would  assured  hasten  to  resume  oper- 
ations, arrangement  for  any  other  plant  to  produce  output, 
special  processes,  processes  in  duplicate,  specially  made  or 
foreign  machinery  or  dies,  source  of  raw  materials,  power 
plant  in  duplicate,  would  a  small  fire  cripple  entire  plant  or 
could  part  of  the  work  continue,  length  of  time  it  would  take 
to  replace  any  portion  of  plant. 

Only  competent  underwriters  should  accept  Use  and  Oc- 
cupancy business. 

William  H.  Gartside  of  the  National  Fire  in  a  recent  ad- 
dress to  the  Examiners'  Club  of  Chicago — ''When  we  cover 
the  use  and  occupancy  of  a  manufacturing  plant,"  said  Mr. 
Gartside,  "we  are  covering  a  more  or  less  intangible  some- 
thing, the  characteristics  and  features  of  which  are  not  as 
plain  to  the  underwriters  as  are  the  physical  aspects  of  the 
risk.  The  value  of  a  building,  machinery  and  stock  may  be 
fairly  judged  from  an  inspection,  but  who  can  tell  what  the 
value  of  the  plant  is  as  a  producer? 

"Two  plants  with  physical  values  approximately  the  same 
may  vary  widely  from  the  standpoint  of  productivity  or 
profit,  and  in  a  large  degree  it  is  necessary  to  rely  on  the 
owner's  figures  as  to  the  use  and  occupancy  value. 

"That  is  one  reason  why  some  companies  restrict  their 
lines  to  well-established  firms  and  individuals  of  good  finan- 
cial standing  who  have  demonstrated  their  ability  to  conduct 
their  business  profitably." 

Increases  the  Moral  Hazard — He  thinks  that  use  and  oc- 
cupancy insurance  is  more  apt  to  increase  than  decrease 
the   moral   hazard.     It   is   human   nature   to   lose   the    sense 


USE   AND    OCCUPANCY   INSURANCE  479 

of  responsibility  as  the  penalty  for  failure  to  exercise  that 
sense  lessens,  and  the  man  who  is  so  completely  insured  that 
he  cannot  lose  by  any  fire  is  likely  to  be  less  vigilant  than 
the  man  who  will  have  a  material  loss  regardless  of  the 
amount  of  insurance  collected. 


VACANCY — A  building  is  vacant  when  all  movable  prop- 
erty has  been  removed  except  that  belonging  to  the  building 
proper.  It  is  unoccupied  when  no  one  is  living  in  it  (in 
case  of  a  dwelling),  even  if  some  of  the  furniture  remains 
or  building  is  in  hands  of  a  caretaker.  Vacant  buildings 
should  always  be  inspected  to  see  if  they  are  clean  and  in 
charge  of  a  watchman.  When  located  outside  of  protection, 
they  are  not  considered  attractive  fire  risks.  A  burglar  haz- 
ard is  present  when  no  watchman  is  employed.  Thieves  re- 
move lead  pipe  and  fittings,  brass,  etc.,  and  sometimes  rig 
up  a  melting  furnace  by  connecting  to  the  gas  supply  pipe 
with  a  rubber  tube.     See  Unoccupied  or  Vacant  Buildings. 

VACANT  LOTS  (not  enclosed)  are  not  a  serious  menace 
to  surrounding  property  if  kept  clean.  Those  enclosed  or 
partly  enclosed  by  fences  are  usually  "hangouts"  for  boys 
and  men  wh.o  are  apt  to  commit  acts  of  depredation,  such 
as  building  bon-fires,  etc.  Where  lots  adjoin  tenements,  they 
are  apt  to  become  the  depository  of  rubbish  thrown  by  ten- 
ants. Fires  communicate  to  cellars  of  risks  through  areaway 
windows  or  doors.     See  Wagons;  also  Rear  Yards. 

VACUUM  OIL— See  Hydrocarbon. 

VALERIANIC  ACID— A  colorless,  oily  liquid,  not  inflam- 
mable. 

VALLEY — The  space  between  two  inclined  sides  of  a 
roof. 

VALUATION  OF  BUILDINGS— Thumb  rule  for  finding 
the  approximate  valuation  of  buildings  in  normal  times.  The 
following  figures  should  be  increased  approximately  30  per 
cent,  at  the  present  time. 

Frame,  10  to  15  cents  per  cubic  foot. 

Brick,  18  to  25  cents  per  cubic  foot  (stores  and  dwellings, 
6  stories  or  under). 

480 


VALUATION  OF  BUILDINGS; i-n  Ml 

.! "Brick,  18  to  20  cents  per  cubic  foot  (lofts). 
if'iFireproof,  25  to  30  cents  per  cubic  foot  (lofts). 

Fireproof,  30  to  40  cents  per  cubic  foot  (theaters). 

Fireproof,  35  to  50  cents  per  cubic  foot  (apartment  houses, 
^t^tels,  office  buildings).  a   a^W^^SS^.q  HJ^A 

Example:  A  brick  store  and  dwelling.  ,  Frpnt,  36  feet 
multiplied  by  85  feet  (depth)  equals  3060  square  feet,  times 
height,  60  feet  (10  feet  to  a  story  including  basement  of  5- 
story  building),  equals  18360  cubic  feet.  At  18  cents  per 
cubic  foot,  the  cost  would  be  $33,048.  Note— In  New  York 
City,  "New  Law"  tenements  may  occupy  not  over  85  per 
cent,  of  area  of  building  lot,  which  is  usually  100  feet  deep; 
hence  85  feet  depth  as  above.  See  Depreciation;  also  Sal- 
vage. 

VALUE  OF  A  LEASE— See  Leasehold  Insurance. 

VALUED  POLICY — A  contract  where  no  co-insurance  is 
required  and  the  company  accepts  the  amount  of  insurance 
as  the  value  of  the  property.  Horses  and  paintings  are 
usually  written  under  a  valued  form.     See  Profits. 

VALUES — One  of  the  important  features  to  be  ascer- 
tained before  the  underwriter  assumes  liability  on  a  risk. 

VALUES  OF  BUILDINGS— When  prices  of  building  ma- 
terials rise  and  thereby  increase  the  cost  of  replacing  same 
in  case  of  fire,  the  value  of  buildings  increase  and  the  insur- 
ance should  be  increased  proportionately  to  maintain  the 
ratio  to  co-insurance.     See  Depreciation;  see  Salvage. 

VALVES — Various  devices. for  permitting  or  stopping  at 
pleasure  the  flow  of  water,  steam,  gas,  etc.  i; 

Valve,  O.  S.  &  Y.  (meaning  outside  screw  and  yoke)^- 
The  approved  gate  valve  for  sprinkler  equipments.  The  dis-^ 
tance  the  stem  projects, indicates  at  a  glance  exactly  the  dis- 
tance-it  is  open.     See  Sprinklers;  see  Gate  Valve. 

Valves  (control) — On  a  sprinkler  equipment  should  be  kept 
open  with  a  leather  strap,  with  ends  sealed  so  that  the  valve 
cannot  be  closed  without  breaking  tiie  seal.  They  are  placed 
on  feed  lines  on  each  floor  or  each  section  of  a  risk,  so  that 
water  can  be  shut  off  from  small  areas  in  case  of  accident. 

VANADIUM  STEEL  is  steel  that  has  been  treated  with 
vanadium — a    semi-rare    mineral,    which    washes    the    molten 


♦82  INSPECTION  AND  UNDERWRITING 

Steel  of  its  impurities,  bringing  the  molecules  closer  together, 
giving  them  greater  adhesiveness  and  making  the  resultant 
product  infinitely  tougher  and  stronger. 

VAPOR-PROOF  GLOBES— See  Open  Arc-lights. 

VARIABLE  PRESSURE  ALARM  VALVE  (working  of) 
When  the  v^ater  flows  just  slightly,  the  check  valve  partly 
rises  and  some  of  the  water  flows  through  a  small  pipe  con- 
nected to  a  long  receptable  known  as  a  "niggerhead"  cham- 
ber. If  this  is  only  a  temporary  flow  the  water  will  only  go 
about  one-half  or  one-quarter  way  up  this  chamber  and  will 
find  its  way  out  of  the  chamber  by  means  of  a  disk  valve; 
but  should  the  check  valve  completely  open  (as  in  case  of 
fire)  the  water  will  immediately  fill  the  chamber  and  travel 
up  to  the  "niggerhead"  at  top  and  bend  the  diaphragm, 
causing  an  electrical  circuit,  thereby  sending  in  an  alarm  to 
headquarters  or  allowing  water  to  ring  the  water  motor 
alarm  and  at  the  same  time  the  diaphragm  will  close  the 
drip  valve.     See  Sprinkler  Equipment. 

VARIETY  STORES— Stock  is  very  susceptible.  Consid- 
erable packing  material  is  used.  Financial  standing  of  firms 
is  important,  as  they  cannot  buy  to  advantage  in  the  open 
market  in  competition  with  large  firms.  See  Five  and  Ten- 
Cent  Stores. 

VARNISH  is  composed  of  three  essential  ingredients: 
Gum  to  give  hardness  and  lustre,  oil  to  impart  elasticity,  a 
solvent  or  thinner  to  keep  it  in  a  liquid  state  and  dryer 
usually  composed  of  lead  and  manganese.  It  is  invariably 
added  to'  the  oil  before  the  varnish  is  made  and  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  kind  necessary  to  produce  required  results. 
Fossil  gums  are  used  for  the  best  varnishes;  and  are  the 
hardened  sap  of  trees  that  lived  thousands  of  years  ago.  The 
gum  known  as  kauri  is  the  chief  and  most  widely  used.  The 
oils  for  varnish  are  made  chiefly  of  linseed  and  china  oils, 
specially  prepared  and  well  aged.  The  solvent  is  chiefly  tur- 
pentine. In  the  manufacture  of  varnish,  the  varnish-maker 
first  melts  the  gum  over  a  coke  fire  in  a  copper  kettle.  When 
the  gum  is  properly  melted,  the  oil  which  is  hot  having  been 
separately  heated,  is  added.  After  adding  the  oil,  the  gum 
and  oil  are  heated  together  until  the  two  are  uniformly  com- 


VARNISH  483 

bined,  when  the  kettle  is  withdrawn  from  the  fire.  The  kettle 
is  next  taken  to  the  thinning  room  where  the  mixture  is  al- 
lowed to  cool  to  a  certain  temperature  and  the  thinner  (ben- 
zine or  turpentine)  or  solvent  added  (called  reducing).  After 
thinning,  the  varnish  is  pumped  through  a  pipe  to  a  vat  or 
cooler  where,  in  addition  to  cooling,  it  settles  and  becomes 
clearer.  From  the  cooler  the  varnish  is  passed  through  a 
filter  press,  which  removes  all  the  dirt  and  foreign  matter. 
The  varnish  is  next  pumped  to  the  ageing  tanks  where  it  is 
allowed  to  thoroughly  ripen.  This  ageing  makes  the  varnish 
bright  and  clear.  Filter  cloths  are  cleaned  with  caustic  soda, 
but  sometimes  with  benzine.  Filter  cloths  in  piles,  unless 
clean,  might  ignite  spontaneously. — Pratt  and  Lambert. 

Some  varnishes  have  a  flash  point  below  80  deg.  F. 

Spirit  Varnish  is  made  by  dissolving  resin  in  methyllated 
spirit  or  other  volatile  solvent. 

VARNISH  AND  PAINT  REMOVERS— Consist  of  a  wax 
dissolved  in  benzol  and  gelatinized  by  an  alcoholic  or  ke- 
tonic  body,  usually  wood  alcohol.  Flash  point  same  as  gaso- 
line, but  on  account  of  wax  used  (to  prevent  evaporation) 
the  flash  point  is  not  considered  as  dangerous  except  when 
in  use  by  workmen. 

VARNISH  WORKS— If  a  fire  occurs  in  the  boiling  house, 
the  doors  opposite  the  fires  should  be  opened.  This  will 
create  a  draft,  which  will  suck  the  flames  up  the  brick  stacks 
and  prevent  the  fire  spreading  to  the  balance  of  the  plant. 
If  the  thinning  and  boiling  buildings  are  detached,  without 
communication,  the  class  ought  to  be  profitable. 

VARNOLENE — A  benzine  substitute  approved  by  Under- 
writers. 

VAULT — A  compartment  of  brick,  concrete  or  similar  ma- 
terial used  for  storage  of  records,  paints,  etc.  See  Bank 
Vaults. 

VAULT  LIGHTS— Usually  small,  heavy  bull's-eye  glass 
in  heavy  iron  frames. 

VAULTS  FOR  SHAVINGS  or  other  refuse  should  be  of 
fireproof  construction  and  located  outside  of  main  building 
w^ith  communicating  openings   as   small  as   possible.     Doors 


«4  INSPECTION  AND   UNDERWRITING 

to  same  should  be  standard,  tight-fitting  and  automatically 
arranged.     See  Shaving  Vault;  also  Direct  Feed. 

VEGETABLE  ALBUMEN,  if  wet  will  form  a  jelly  like 
the  white  of  an  egg.  Unless  immediately  dried  will  be  total 
loss.     Used  chiefly  in  medicine. 

VEGETABLE  IVORY— Made  from  Tanqua  nuts.  Used 
mainly  for  making  buttons. 

VEGETABLE  OILS  are  extracted  by  hydraulic  pressure 
after  cooking,  or  by  what  is  known  as  the  bisulphide  of  car- 
bon or  mineral  naphtha  process.  Naphtha  is  put  in  a  steam- 
heated  receptacle  with  the  material  which  has  been  previously 
crushed.  This  digester  is  sealed  up,  allowed  to  remain  for  a 
while,  the  liquid  is  drawn  off  and  the  naphtha  vapor  passed 
out  through  a  condenser.  Electric  lights  and  steam-heat 
should  be  used  because  in  case  of  accident,  the  naphtha  vapors 
may  escape  into  the  room  and  be  ignited  if  any  open  flame 
is  present.  They  are  more  hazardous  than  mineral  oils  as 
they  have  an  affinity  for  oxygen  and  dry  quicker  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  oxygen.  Animal  oil,  unless  rancid,  is  not 
apt  to  cause  spontaneous  combustion,  but  all  oil-soaked  sub- 
stances should  be  treated  as  hazardous.     See  Mineral  Oil. 

Vegetable  Waxes  such  as  those  extracted  from  candelila 
plant  are  being  widely  used.  Candelila  wax  is  used  in  mak- 
ing  candles,  phonograph  records,  wood  and  leather  polishes, 
floor  wax,  varnish,  linoleum,  rubber  compounds  and  cellu- 
loid, also  for  electrical   insulating  compounds. 

VELLUM — Parchment  made  of  suckling  calves'  hides. 

VELOCITY — The  rate  of  motion  or  the  degree  of  quick- 
ness with  which  an  object  rrioves. 

VELOCITY  OF  EXPLOSION— See  Explosion  and  Ex- 
plosive. 

The  heat  and  gas  evolved  are  the  two  principal  factors 
which  govern  the  power  of  an  explosive,  i.  e.,  the  amount  of 
work  it  can  do  in  the  way  of  displacing  objects.  But  the 
time  taken  by  the  explosion  is  also  a  matter  of  great  im- 
portance. The  rate  of  explosion  is  measured  by  making  a 
column  of  the  explosive,  confining  it  if  necessary  in  a  metal 
tube,  and  measuring  the  time  that  the  explosive  wave  takes 
to  travel   a  known  distance.     In  black  powder   and  similar 


OKI:  VENEER  48S 

nitrate  mixtures  the  velocity  of  explosion  is  only  a  few  hun- 
dred metres  a  second  but  with  modern  high  explosives  the 
velocity  of  detonation  is  from  two  to  seven  thousand  metres 
a  second.  This  naturally  makes  them  much  more  violent  and 
destructive.  Explosives  of  the  gunpowder  type  are  used 
when  earth  or  soft  rock  is  to  be  blasted  or  when  the  material 
must  not  be  broken  up  too  much. — A.  Marshall. 

VELVET  BEANS— A  product  of  Florida,  used  as  a  for- 
age crop  and  for  fertilizer.  A  growing  industry  is  that  of 
converting  the  beans  into  meal.  They  are  dried  and  ground 
in  machines  similar  to  a  disc  cottonseed  huller,  and  also  in 
a  velvet  bean  "beater."  The  former  cracks  the  pods  and  the 
latter  cut  them  up.  The  meal  is  collected  in  hoppers,  sacked 
and  shipped.  The  machines  used  should  have  magnets  to 
catch  metallic  substances.  The  beans  do  not  burn  readily  and 
are  only  remotely  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion, 
whether  whole  or  ground. 

VELVETEENS  are  easily  damaged  by  water. 

VENEER — Made  by  sawing  lumber  into  thin  slices,  or  by 
turning  off  the  veneer  from  short  lengths  of  logs  which  have 
been  previously  soaked  or  steamed  in  vats.  The  lathes  used 
in  the  latter  process  are  of  heavy  type  with  automatic  fea- 
tures for  turning  the  log  slowly  and  at  the  same  time  ad- 
vancing the  cutting  blade  against  the  log.  Other  processes 
may  include  gluing  and  pressing  the  veneer  upon  a  backing, 
drying  and  filling,  varnishing.  The  hazards  are  those  of 
woodworking.  Stocking  susceptible  to  fire  and  water  dam- 
age, as  these  elements  will  destroy  or  cause  the  veneer  to 
warp. 

VEJNTILATING  SHAFTS— Should  be  enclosed  in  a  stan- 
dard manner,  and  have  thin  glass  skylights.  Those  opening 
to  toilets  should  have  standard  louvres.  See  Pipe  Shafts;  see 
Illustration  on  page  486. 

VENTURES— See  New  Ventures. 

VERANDAS — Enclosed  porches  if  continuous  along  rows 
of  buildings,  act  as  communications. 

VERMILLION — A  red  pigment  consisting  of  powdered 
cinnabar,  or  red  sulphate  of  mercury. 

VIBRATION  OF  BUILDINGS— Buildings,  large  or  small. 


486 


INSPECTION  AND   UNDERWRITING 


vibrate  like  a  tuning  fork  whenever  a  heavy  train  passes  by 
or  a  storm  beats  against  the  structure.  Accidents  from  vi- 
bration are  rare  as  it  is  well  understood  and  guarded  against. 
The  most  violent  are  felt  in  the  low  buildings  rather  than  the 


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VOLATILE   SOLVENTS  487 

high  ones,  and,  as  a  rule,  those  of  solid  construction  with 
masonry  walls  and  foundations.  The  pulsations  are  regis- 
tered and  recorded  on  a  delicate  instrument  such  as  records 
earthquakes,  a  movement  of  1-100  of  an  inch  being  noticeable. 

VINEGAR  (cider  or  apple) — The  product  made  by  the  al- 
coholic and  subsequent  acetous  fermentation  of  the  juice  of 
apples.  Wine  or  grape  vinegar,  same  as  above,  only  made 
from  the  juice  of  grapes.  Imitation  vinegar  consists  of  a 
diluted  solution  of  acetic  acid. 

VINEGAR  AND  YEAST  WORKS— They  are  usually 
combined  processes.  Yeast  is  made  from  grain,  beet  pulp, 
malt  sprouts,  corn  sugar,  beet  meal  and  similar  ingredients. 
They  are  milled,  mashed,  cooked,  fermented,  germinated, 
filtered,  dried,  pressed  into  cakes.  Vinegar  is  fermented  from 
spirits  and  beech  shavings  and  such  other  ingredients  as  the 
manufacture  may  add.  Hazards  are  in  some  respects  similar 
to  breweries,  including  malt  milling.  Twenty  per  cent,  proof 
spirits  are  usually  distilled  from  grain  for  use  in  the  process. 
Incidental  hazards  of  barrel  painting  and  re-coopering.  The 
alcohol  stills  require  good  ventilation  to  the  outer  air. 

VISCOL — Used  in  shoe  factories  as  rubber  substitute.  A 
water  proof  dressing  for  dressing  leather.  Thinned  with  pe- 
troleum oil  or  benzine.  In  liquid  form  classed  as  benzine 
hazard.     Dipping  should  be  done  in  detached  building. 

VISCOLOID— A  trade  name  for  celluloid. 

VOLATILE  ESSENTAL  OILS— Are  oils  of  turpentine, 
camphor  and  the  like.     See  Essential  Oils. 

VOLATILE  OILS— If  in  doubt  as  to  whether  an  oil  is 
volatile  or  not,  place  a  small  amount  on  the  finger  or  hand. 
If  it  dries  very  quickly,  consider  it  volatile.  See  Benzine  or 
Gasoline. 

VOLATILE  SOLVENTS— Ether,  carbon  bisulphide,  gaso- 
line, acetone,  benzol,  flavoring  or  fruit  ethers,  ethyl  chloride, 
naphtha,  benzine. 

The  hazard  depends  largely  on  the  flash  point  or  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  volatile  solvents  begin  to  give  off  inflam- 
mable vapors.  All  the  above  named  are  highly  inflammable 
,nd  evolve  inflammable  vapors  at  temperatures  from  below 
'reezing  point  up  to  80  deg.  F. 


I^Kand    < 
I^Hfreezi 

H 


488  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

The  less  hazardous  solvents  amyl  alcohol,  fusel  oil,  wood- 
alcohol,  grain  alcohol,  amyl  acetate,  turpentine  and  kerosene 
are  all  inflammable,  and  some  of  them  have  low  flash  points 
and  are  capable  of  generating  inflammable  vapors  at  tem- 
peratures of  from  60  to  120  deg,  F. — W.  D.  Grier. 

VOLATILITY— A  property  of  bodies  by  which  they  are 
disposed  to  assume  the  state  of  vapor  and  dissipate  on  the 
application  of  heat,  whether  natural  or  artificial. 

VOLT — The  electrical  unit  of  pressure.  See  Amperes;  also 
Electrical  Terms. 

VOMITORIES  are  short,  intermediate  exit  passages  con- 
necting to  the  larger  or  main  exitway.  Used  in  theaters  be- 
tween main  aisles  of  balconies  to  facilitate  exit  and  for  con- 
venience. 

VULCANIZERS— The  same  rule  applies  as  to  the  setting 
of  gas  stoves.  Gas  heat  is  penalized,  no  matter  how  safely 
arranged,  because  gas  heat  at  an  appliance  where  rubber  ce- 
ment is  used  is  considered  dangerous.  Steam  heat  is  ap- 
proved. 

VULCANIZING — Cementing  two  or  more  pieces  of  rub- 
ber together  to  form  a  compact  mass.  High  temperature 
steam   or   gas-heated   machines  of  various   designs   are   used. 


w 

WAFERS  AND  CONES  (ice  cream  cones)— The  hazards 
are  gas-heated  bakers,  mixers,  automatic  wafer  and  cone- 
baking  machines.  The  cones  are  made  up  in  winter  for  sum- 
mer trade.  The  largest  stock  is  on  hand  in  March.  The 
busiest  season  January  to  March,  but  the  plants  start  active 
production  in  October.  The  machines  are  of  several  types, 
flat-rotating,  pan-revolving  (operated  by  hand)  sheet  wafer, 
and  large  automatic  cone  bakers.  The  gas  heat  is  directed 
on  the  moulds  from  inside  burners.  The  dough  is  poured  on 
the  moulds,  and  baked  in  one  revolution  of  the  baker.  An 
operator  at  each  machine  scrapes  off  the  charred  baked 
dough  from  the  edges  of  the  wafer  or  cone  and  the  charred 
parts  fall  to  the  floor.  In  low  setting  bakers,  the  scraps  ac- 
cumulate under  the  baker  and  are  frequently  blazing  piles. 
All  baking  machines  should  set  on  at  least  six  inches  of  con- 
crete. Baffle  plates,  although  advocated  by  most  rating  bu- 
reaus, under  machines,  tend  to  bank  up  the  burning  scraps 
and  should  be  omitted.  Over  the  large  bakers,  there  should 
be  a  metal  ventilated  hood,  the  same  as  over  a  range,  to 
carry  the  heated  air  to  the  outside.  Paper  box  making,  ma- 
chine shop  for  repairs,  printing  labels  and  pasting  labels  are 
incidental  hazards.     This  class  has  a  bad  fire  record. 

WAFERS  (cocoanut) — Hazards  are  similar  to  ordinary 
bakery.  Glucose  is  heated  in  kettle  with  cocoanut,  cooled 
on  marble  slab,  toasted  in  gas  or  coal  ovens.  Note  the  kind 
of  heat  used  for  kettles  and  ovens. 

WAGONS  in  open  yards  arc  good  insurance  if  the  yard  is 
fenced  in,  and  the  neighborhood  is  free  from  rowdies.  Open 
trucks  are  preferable  to  closed  wagons  because  they  ofifer 
no  concealment  to  trespassers.     See  Vacant  Lots. 

WAINSCOT — A  wood  facing  to  walls  in  rooms,  extend- 
ing from  floor. 

489 


490  INSPECTION   AND   UNDERWRITING 

WALLS — Several  important  considerations  enter  into  the 
construction  of  walls.  The  first  is  the  nature  of  occupancy 
of  the  structure  bearing  in  mind  that  at  some  future  time 
the  occupancy  may  radically  change.  The  wall  must  be  suf- 
ficiently thick  to  safely  carry  a  maximum  live  or  dead  load, 
to  stand  upright  to  resist  wind  pressure  and  vibration  and 
form  a  solid  fire  wall  especially  where  there  is  an  adjoining 
building.     See  Fire  Wall. 

Walls — For  the  warehouse  class  of  buildings  should  be 
common  brick  as  follows:  Twelve  inches  if  not  over  40  feet 
high.  If  over  40  feet  high  require  16  inches  for  first  40 
feet,  and  12  inches  above  up  to  a  height  of  not  exceeding  60 
feet.  If  over  60  feet,  20  inches  for  25  feet  and  16  inches 
the  balance  up  to  75  feet.  If  over  75  feet,  24  inches  for  40 
feet,  then  20  inches  for  35  feet,  and  16  inches  the  balance  up 
to  100  feet.  If  over  100  feet,  28  inches  for  40  feet,  then  24 
inches  for  35  feet,  then  20  inches  for  25  feet  and  16  inches 
balance  up  to  125  feet.  If  over  125  feet,  32  inches  for  30  feet, 
then  24  inches  for  35  feet,  then  20  inches  for  35  feet  and 
balance  16  inches  to  150  feet  high.     See  Bearing  Wall. 

WALL  CHIMNEY— A  chimney  built  into  and  forming 
part  of  a  wall.     See  Bracket  Chimney;  also  Corbel. 

WALL  COVERINGS— Some  are  made  of  oxidized  linseed 
oil,  Swedish  clay,  wood  flour,  chrome  and  earth  colors,  paraf- 
fine,  lithopone,  or  similar  materials.  Mixed  dry,  passed 
through  calender,  spread  over  and  pasted  to  paper  backing. 
Surface  is  polished  with  linseed  oil  and  turpentine. 

WALL-HYDRANT  or  fire  plug.  One  set  against  or  close 
to  a  wall,  connected  with  a  supply  pipe  through  or  under  the 
wall. 

WALL  PAPER  DEALERS  AND  HANGERS— Busiest 
months,  July  to  October.  Unless  stock  is  turned  over  an- 
nually, there  is  apt  to  be  considerable  shop-worn  stock,  and 
out-of-date  patterns  on  hand. 

WALL  PAPER — Finishing  Process — Paper  is  varnished  in 
"varnishing  and  printing"  machine  by  passing  the  paper  over 
a  rubber-covered  drum,  coated  with  benzine  or  turpentine- 
thinned  varnish,  which  deposits  a  thin  coat  of  varnish  on  the 
paper.     Paper  then  passes  by  means  of  a  traveling  belt  over 


WAR  CONDITIONS  401 

steam  pipes  to  dry,  and  carried  in  festoons  a  long  distance, 
being  thoroughly  dried  before  being  removed  at  far  end. 
A  ventilator,  with  a  suction  fan  is  located  over  the  steam 
pipes,  which  sucks  the  benzine  or  turpentine  vapors  to  the 
outer  air.  Static  electricity  is  often  produced  in  this  proc- 
ess if  paper  is  passed  too  close  to  the  metal  ventilator.  The 
hazards  consist  of  color-mixing,  using  clay,  glue,  lard  and  oil; 
drying  and  embossing.  Inspectors  should  note  color  room, 
glue  heaters,  machine  shop,  sample  book  making,  care  of 
waste  and  storage  of  oils.  Fires  in  this  class  are  usually 
Very  severe. 

WALL  PLATE— Timber  laid  along  the  tops  of  walls  for 
the  roof  trusses  or  rafters  to  rest  upon  so  as  to  distribute 
their  weight  more  equally  upon  the  wall.     See  Template. - 

WALL  SIZING — Consists  of  caustic  soda,  soda  ash,  tap- 
ioca flour,  cornstarch,  dextrine,  neutral  salts,  gum  arabic 
and  dry  soap  powder.  Grinding,  mixing,  sifting  and  packing- 
are  the  important  hazards. 

WALNUTS— See  Nuts. 

"WAR  CONDITIONS"— Constitute  the  great  outstand- 
ing cause  for  the  high  loss  record.  These  conditions  must 
be  classified  as  due  to — 

(a)  Malice,  to  inflict  damage  from  hostile  motives  or  to 
cripple  war  supplies.  This  has  been  a  very  serious  factor, 
affecting  particularly  grain  depots,  waterfront  properties, 
lumber,  tobacco,  factory  and  warehouse  risks. 

(b)  Fires  occasioned  by  the  high  pressure  under  which 
the  work  of  production  and  distribution  has  been  rushed 
and  which  has  been  the  direct  cause  of  large  factory  and 
pier  fires,  including  many  sprinklered  risks  of  large  values. 
With  this  should  be  included  the  menace  of  employment  of 
masses  of  untrained,  inefficient  help  on  technical  processes. 

(c)  Fires  and  explosions  resulting  as  an  inevitable  con- 
sequence of  the  handling  of  vast  quantities  of  explosive  and 
inflammable  materials  of  which  the  Kingsland,  N.  J.,  and  the 
Halifax  explosions  and  conflagrations  -are  typical  instances. 
— (Frank  Lock.)     See  Guards. 

WAR  RISK  INSURANCE  can  be  written  under  two 
forms,  limited  and  broad.     The  limited   form  covers  losses 


402  INSPECTION  AND  UNDERWRITING 

caused  by  war,  invasion,  insurrection,  riot,  civil  war,  civil 
commotion,  including  strikes,  military  or  usurped  power,  bom- 
bardment and  for  explosion  directly  caused  by  any  of  the 
hazards  mentioned.  The  broad  forms  affords  protection 
against  all  of  the  hazards  covered  by  explosion  and  war 
risk  policies. 

WAREHOUSE,  PRIVATE— One  where  the  contents  are 
owned  by  an  individual  or  a  corporation  who  agrees  to  cer- 
tain specifications  laid  down  by  local  rating  bureaus. 

WAREHOUSES— Bonded  warehouse  is  one  where  the 
goods  are  stored  under  government  bond  or  control  and 
from  which  goods  cannot  be  removed  until  certain  govern- 
ment requirements  have  been  complied  with.  See  Storage 
Warehouses.  See  Alphabetical  List;  see  Fibre  Warehouses; 
also  Wharf  Clause. 

Listed  Storage  Stores  are  divided  into  two  classes:  fibre 
and  non-fibre,  a  distinction  made  to  denote  those  which  store 
cotton  and  other  vegetable  fibres  and  those  which  do  not. 
In  turn,  non-fibre  warehouses  are  dividjed  into  stipulated  and 
non-stipulated  and  chemical  warehotisesITiCT/iOO    5IAVv"" 

Stipulated  Warehouse  will  not  accept  certain  merchandise 
and  chemicals.  For  instance,  ammonia,  benzine,  chlorates, 
etc.,  must  be  stored  in  a  non-stipulated  store. 

Non-stipulated  warehouse  will  accept,  in  addition  to  what 
is  allowed  to  be  stored  in  a  listed  store,  such  chemicals  and 
merchandise  which  is  not  allowed  in  a  stipulated  warehouse. 
Warehousemen  sign  an  agreement  stipulating  that,  they  will 
not  store  any  fibre  (in  case  of  non-fibre  warehouse)  and  to  ex- 
clude from  their  premises  explosives  and  all  drugs  of  a  poi- 
sonous or  nauseous  character.  Non-stipulated  warehouses 
may  store  any  kind  of  goods  except  fibre.  See  Chemical 
Warehouses.  : 

WARP  in  weaving  is  the  threads  which  are  extended 
lengthwise  in  the  loom  and  crossed  by  the  woof. 

WASHING  POWDERS  usually  contain  soap  powder,  soda 
ash  and  fine  sand. 

WASH-TUBS— Usually  made  from  soapstone,  called  Al- 
berene  (taken  from  the  name  of  the  town  from  which  the 
stone  is  quarried). 


WATER  4*3 

mWASTE  (cotton)  if  clean,  i^;i^.t  , subject  to  spontaneous 
.combustion.     See  Oily  Waste.     f-.>->  y,...;!  .,, 

WASTE  CANS  (for  oily  waste  or  rags)  provide  a  metal 
can  well  riveted  and  with  legs  or  rims  holding  bottom  off 
the  floor,  and  the  cover  with  a  short  spring  or  bar  to  keep 
the  lid  off  center  so  as  to  keep  the  can  normally  closed.  For 
rubbish  or  ashes,  provide  a  metal  can  with  metal  rim  at  bot- 
tom, so  as  to  keep  the  base  off  the  floor,  and  a  metal  coyer. 

WASTE-PAPER  STOCKS  are  prolific  fire  breeders.  A 
K.  O.  class  with  most  insurance  companies, 

WATCHMAN  AND  CLOCK— Rounds  are  made  hourly 
nights  from  6  P.  M.  to  6  A.  M.  and  during  the  day  on  Sun- 
days, holidays,  and  all  idle  periods.  The  clock  must  be  ap- 
proved bytlie  underwriters.  Central  stati6h^supervisio'h'^re- 
f  erred.  '; 

WATCH  OIL— Obtained  from  the  dolphin,  walrus,  black- 
fish,  snuffer,  or  shark. 

WATER — The  total  amount  of  water  used  in  la'rg^ 'fires, 
is  not  as  great  as  frequently  thought.  A  fire,  for  example, 
requiring  ten  streams  for  five  hours  would  use  750,000  gal- 
lons. However,  the  rate  of  draft  for  fire  fighting  is  fre- 
quently high  in  comparison  with  the  ordinary  consumption. 
Three  standard  fire  streams  discharging  750  gallons  per 
minute  use  water  at  a  rate  of  a  little  more  than  a  million 
gallons  a  day,  and  ten  streams  means  a  rate  of  flow  of  about 
three  and  one-half  million  gallons  per  twenty-four  hours. 
Pipe  sizes  must,  of  course,  be  proportioned  for  the  maximum 
rate  of  demand  which  any  fire  is  likely  to  cause. — French. 
See  Tables. 

.  WATER  CURTAINS— See  Open  Sprinklers. 
,  WATER  GAS — A  process  in  which  the  main  volume  of 
gas,  consisting  of  hydrogen;  is  taken  out  of  the  water.  The 
process*  in  brief,  is:  Steam  is  passed  through  retorts  filled 
with  anthracite  coal  raised  to  a  white  heat  by  the  air  blast. 
In  its  passage  it  is  decomposed  and  the  gas  coming  from 
the  pipes  at  the  top  consists  of  a  mixture  of  hydrogen  and 
carbon  dioxide.  This  serves  as  the  carrier  for  the  true  il- 
luminating agents  which  are  a  comparatively  small  percent- 
age of  the  entire  volume,  and  these  are  combined  by  mingling 


494  INSPECTION   AND   UNDERWRITING 

with  naphtha  vapor.  This  mixture  has  now  about  the  same 
composition  as  ordinary  coal  gas,  but  must  be  fixed — that  is, 
made  a  staple  compound  by  subjecting  it  to  the  effect  of 
heat  and  cold.  This  is  accomplished  by  conducting  it  through 
two  series  of  pipes,  surrounded  in  one  case  by  cold  running 
water  and  the  other  by  steam.  It  is  then  purified  in  the 
same  manner  as  mentioned.  By  passing  it  through  a  water- 
tower  loosely  filled  with  material  such  as  charcoal,  down 
through  which  water  trickles  as  the  gaseous  vapor  ascends, 
the  ammonia  is  dissolved;  then,  passing  it  through  thin 
layers  of  lime,  the  other  main  impurity,  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen, is  removed.  It  is  then  ready  for  distribution  through 
the  city. 

WATER-HAMMER  in  water  pipes  may  best  be  overcome 
by  introducing  devices  which  compel  the  slow  opening  and 
closing  of  cocks  and  valves. 

WATER  HEATERS— See  Heaters. 

WATER  JACKET— A  device  to  prevent  combustibles 
from  flowing  on  a  naked  flame.     See  Jacketed. 

WATER  PUTS  OUT  FIRE  (HOW)— In  order  to  under- 
stand this,  we  must  first  know  what  fire  is  and  what  keeps 
it  burning. 

Fire  is  a  form  of  chemical  combustion  in  which  flames 
make  their  appearance.  There  may  be  combustion  or  burn- 
ing without  flame,  although  not  without  heat.  When  a  body 
becomes  heated  from  any  cause  and  wastes  away,  turning 
into  something  else  (as  smoke  or  ashes),  it  is  said  to  under- 
go combustion. 

In  the  process  of  combustion  or  burning  there  must  always 
be  at  least  two  things.  First,  there  must  be  the  combustible, 
and  second,  some  supporter  of  combustion.  When  wood 
burns  in  the  open  air,  the  wood  is  the  combustible  and  the 
air  the  supporter  of  combustion.  The  wood  could  not  con- 
tinue to  burn  if  it  were  not  surrounded  by  air.  The  air 
supplies  the  gas  (oxygen)  which  is  essential  to  the  act  of 
combustion. 

Water  in  small  quantities  is  of  no  use  because  the  elements 
of  water  themselves  are  combustible  (consisting  of  oxygen 
and  hydrogen),  but  when  poured  in  from  large  streams  and 


WATER  PRESSURE  49S 

falling  in  a  deluge  upon  the  flames,  the  heat  of  the  latter  is 
insufficient  in  quantity  to  rapidly  turn  the  water  into  steam 
and  then  disassociate  the  oxygen  and  the  hydrogen.  Water 
has  a  very  high  specific  heat,  i.  e.,  it  takes  a  great  amount 
of  heat  to  change  water  from  the  cold  liquid  to  the  hot  vapor- 
ous form  which  we  call  steam.  The  heat  of  the  fire  is  swiftly 
devoured,  so  to  speak,  by  thc^water  falling  upon  it  and  ab- 
sorbing it.  The  constant  streams  of  water  pouring  in  and  the 
clouds  of  steam  arising  serve  as  a  blanket  (not  itself  com- 
bustible), which  shuts  off  the  air  from  the  flames  and  thus 
prevents  them  from  obtaining  oxygen  from  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  as  fuel  as  they  did  before.  (Extracted  from  lec- 
ture by  Prof.   Garret  P.   Serviss.)      .See  Water  Pressure. 

WATER  MAINS  should  be  laid  in  complete  citcuit  and 
be  of  sufficient  size,  not  less  than  6  inches,  to  provide  vol- 
ume under  such  head  or  pressure  as  will  insure  the  delivery 
of  full  streams  at  each  outlet  in  the  service  with  a  loss  of 
head  of  not  over  10  to  12  pounds  below  normal  pressure. 
Exposed  water  pipes  in  dwellings  can  be  prevented  from 
freezing  by  covering  them  an  inch  thick  with  a  paste  made 
of  boiled  starch  and  sawdust,  using  a  hemp  twine  or  similar 
cord  as  a  binder,  and  then  coating  with  tar.  See  Water  Sys- 
tems; see  Dead  Ends. 

WATER  PRESSURE— A  cubic  foot  of  sea  water  weighs 
64  pounds.  Each  cubic  foot  may  be  regarded  as  standing  on 
a  base  of  one  square  foot.  Therefore,  the  pressure  at  the 
base  of  a  cubic  foot  of  sea  water  is  64  pounds  per  square 
foot.  A  cubic  foot  of  water  having  a  base  of  one  scjuare 
foot  must  be  one  foot  high.  The  pressure  at  its  base  (64 
pounds  per  square  foot)  is,  therefore,  the  same  as  the  pres- 
sure which  would  be  encountered  at  one  foot  below  sea  level. 

One  hundred  and  forty-four  square  inches  make  one  square 
foot.  A  vertical  column  of  water  having  a  sectional  area 
of  1  square  inch  would  therefore  weigh  1-144  as  much  as  a 
column  equally  high,  but  having  a  section  area  of  one  square 
foot.  Since  the  pressure  per  square  foot  is  64  pounds,  the 
pressure  per  square  inch  is  1-144  of  64  =  64-144  =  4-9  =  0.44 
pounds  per  square  inch.  At  two  feet  below  sea  level,  or 
double   the   depth,   double   the   height   and   weight   of  water 


496  INSPECTION   AND   UNDERWRITING 

Stands  on  each  square  inch,  therefore  the  pressure  is  double, 
or  2  X  0.44  =  0.88  per  square  inch. 

Each  extra  foot  of  depth  adds  an  extra  pressure  of  0.44 
pounds  per  square  inch.  To  find  the  pressure  at  any  depth, 
multiply  the  depth  in  feet  by  0.44  pounds  per  square  inch. 
— The   Steamships.     See   Pressure. 

How  to  determine  the  number  of  gallons  of  water  dis- 
charged at  a  fire — Let  us  assume  that  a  gravity  tank  is  ele- 
vated 20  feet  above  the  roof  and  the  height  of  the  tank  is 
12  feet  and  the  building  is  six  stories  high. 

The  fire  takes  place  on  the  second  floor.     Example: 

:    .:    :■.:•]..>    .:    Feeti^    Off. 

Height    of    tank,    full ^jr^?  •'glJflAW  •5^:^T'i^\W 

Distance  above  roof 20 

Height  of  sixth  floor 12 

Height  of  fifth  floor 12 

Height  of  fourth  floor ,..,^. ,,....      11 

Height  of  third  flour .,,^;..,.  ^,. ...      U 

Height  of  second  floor...  (at  sprinkler  head)       2 

80 

To  get  the  pressure  at  second  floor,  multiply 
elevation  by 434  * 

Which   equals    34.720  lbs. - 

Say  pressure  is  35  pounds.  With  Grinnel  type  "A"  head 
21  gallons  of  water  per  minute  would  be  discharged.  (Al- 
ways find  out  type  of  head,  as  amount  of  discharge  differs.) 
If  21  gallons  of  water  per  minute  from  each  head,  for  two 
heads  it  would  be  42  gallons,  and  if  heads  operated  for  ten 
minutes'  duration  there  would  be  approximately  420  gallons 
of  water  discharged.     See  Water  Puts  Out  Fire. 

WATERPROOFING  CARDBOARD  OR  PASTEBOARD 
—Paper  is  treated  in  nitric  acid  solution,  then  piled  in  sheets 
and  placed  in  hydraulic  press. 

*  See  Pressure. 


WATERPROOFING    CONCRETE   BUILDINGS  487 

WATERPROOFING     CONCRETE     BUILDINGS— This 

subject  has  received  great  attention  from  architects  and 
builders  owing  to  the  natural  tendency  of  concrete  to  ab- 
sorb moisture.  One  method,  and  perhaps  the  oldest,  is  the 
tar  and  asphalt  method  of  coating  either  with  or  without  a 
paper  or  fabric  binding  or  reinforcement.  This  method  is 
useful  in  most  cases  but  could  not  be  used  to  advantage  on 
the  outside  surface  of  a  sea  wall  or  under  similar  conditions. 
On  the  outside  surface  of  a  building,  or  on  a  floor  where 
acids  or  alkali  liquids  are  used,  the  integral  method  might 
be  employed.  In  substance,  this  method  is  the  introduction 
of  a  waterproofing  compound  into  the  cement  or  concrete 
which  does  not  hasten  or  retard  the  setting  of  the  concrete 
but  which  tends  to  close  up  all  pores  or  voids  and  thus  render 
the  concrete  work  a  solid  moisture  resisting  body.  There 
are  other  methods  employed  by  builders,  and  many  patented 
compounds  on  the  market;  but  all  of  them  rely  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  there  must  be  a  continuous  bond  between  the 
aggregates  of  the  concrete  of  sufficient  strength  and  dura- 
bility to  withstand  the  elements  of  time  and  weather. 

WATERPROOFING  PAPER— Paper  is  coated  with  a 
resinous  soap,  given  bath  of  zinc  chloride,  pressed  in  rollers, 
washed,  dried,  coated  with  paraffine,  then  run  through  a  cal- 
ender. 

WATER  SUPPLIES— See  Tables  for  Capacity  of  Tanks. 
Also  Private  Fire  Plants. 

WATER  SYSTEMS— The  first  duty  of  an  inspector  is  to 
find  out  the  merit  of  the  water  supply  available  in  case  of 
fire,  and  if  inadequate,  lay  out  a  private  water  supply  to 
properly  protect  the  property.     See  Water  Mains. 

WATER  TABLE— A  slight  projection  of  the  lower  ma- 
sonry or  brickwork  on  the  outside  of  a  wall  and  reaching 
to  a  few  feet  above  the  ground  surface. 

WATER-TIGHT  FLOORS  should  be  required  in  all  plants 
where  a  heavy  water  loss  is  possible  to  the  lower  floors. 
The  use  of  scuppers  for  carrying  off  the'  water  is  recom- 
mended. 

WATER  TOWERS  should  be  constructed  so  as  to  send 
a  horizontal  stream   into  a  building  at  a  height  of  80   feet. 


498  INSPECTION   AND   UNDERWRITING 

Sometimes  they  throw  streams  almost  vertical,  which  are 
of  no  use. 

WATER-TUBE  BOILER— A  boiler  in  which  the  water 
circulates  in  tubes,  aroand  which  the  heat  and  gases  of  com- 
bustion pass. 

WATER  VARNISHES— Gum  lac  dissolved  in  hot  water 
and  mixed  with  ammonia  and  borax. 

WATT — See  Electrical  Terms;  also  Kilowatt. 

WAX  KETTLES  should  be  steam-heated.  If  gas-heated, 
the  kettle  should  be  provided  with  a  suitable  water  jacket. 

WAX  POLISH  may  be  beeswax  and  turpentine. 

WEATHER  BOARDS— The  boards  nailed  to  vertical  or 
inclined  timbers  at  the  sides  of  a  building. 

WEAVE — To  unite,  as  threads  of  any  kind,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  form  a  texture;  to  entwine  or  interlace  into  a  fabric. 

WELD — To  join  two  pieces  of  metal  together  by  first 
softening  them  under  the  action  of  heat  and  then  hammering 
them  in  contact  with  each  other.  See  Oxy-acetylene  Weld- 
ing. 

WELL  HOLE — A  larger  opening  than  an  ordinary  light 
or  ventilating  shaft,  piercing  a  series  of  floors  for  purposes 
of  light  and  ventilation.  Are  dangerous  features.  Their 
large  area  makes  all  floors  practically  gallery  floors,  and 
fires  quickly  spread  from  floor  to  floor.     See  Shafts. 

WHARF  CLAUSE  is  attached  to  insurance  policies  when 
lines  are  to  cover  in  storage,  so  that  the  assured  is  covered 
for  ten  days  while  the  goods  are  on  the  wharf  waiting  as- 
signment to  a  warehouse.     See  Piers. 

WHEELWRIGHT— The  hazards  are  those  of  small  wood- 
workers and  machine  shops  with  painting. 

WHITE  LEAD  is  a  compound  consisting  of  carbonate  of 
lead  and  hydrate  of  lead  in  chemical  solution. 

The  Carter  Process — Metallic  lead  is  melted,  and  while 
molten  is  riven  into  fine  particles,  like  flour,  by  a  jet  of 
high-pressure  superheated  steam.  This  amorphous  powder, 
of  a  steel  gray  or  dark  blue  color,  is  charged  into  a  revolv- 
ing cylinder  5  to  7  feet  in  diameter,  by  8  x  12  feet  long.  One 
end  of  the  cylinder  is  connected  to  an  exhaust  fan,  and  the 
other  to  a  flue  leading  from  a  furnace  where  carbonic  acid 


WHITE    LEAD  499 

gas  is  generated  from  burning  charcoal.  Generally  the  prod4 
ucts  from  combustion  from  a  coke  fire  under  a  steam  boiler 
of  the  plant  are  used  for  the  corroding  gas,  the  furnace  gases 
having  been  washed  and  purified  to  free  them  from  the  sul- 
phur present.  The  temperature  of  the  revolving  cylinder  and 
the  charge  of  powdered  lead  is  kept  at  140  deg.  F.  Diluted 
acetic  acid  and  hot  water  is  sprayed  into  the  chamber  at  dif- 
ferent times  during  the  corroding  process.  The  agitation  is 
constant,  as  is  also  the  heat.  Balance  of  treatment,  such  as 
grinding,  is  the  same  as  Dutch  process.  "Rustless  Coatings; 
Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and  Steel." — John  Wiley 
&  Sons,  Inc.,  publishers. 

Dutch  Process — In  this  process  thin  perforated  sheets  of 
lead  are  exposed  in  gall  pots  containing  a  weak  solution  of 
acetic  acid  (water  25/2  parts  of  strong  acid)  or  common  cider 
vinegar.  The  pots  are  placed  in  long  tiers,  each  tier  being 
loosely  covered  with  boards  and  stacked  in  large  numbers. 
The  bed  of  pots  is  then  imbedded  in  tan  bark,  sawdust,  stable 
litter,  etc.,  that  ferments  and  soon  raises  the  temperature  of 
the  mass  to  140  to  165  deg.  F.  A  quantity  of  vinegar  con- 
taining 50  lbs.  of  strong  acid  converts  two  tons  of  lead  into 
the  carbonate  of  lead  in  about  100  days.  The  only  attention 
the  beds  require  during  the  process  of  corrosion  is  to  con- 
trol the  temperature  of  the  mass  by  regulating  the  admission 
of  air  to  the  interior  of  the  bed  by  opening  or  closing  the 
apertures  left  for  that  purpose.  The  corrosion  is  practically 
completed  at  the  end  of  sixty  days;  but  the  lead  is  of  light 
specific  gravity,  so  it  is  the  practice  to  allow  the  beds  to  re- 
main 30  to  40  days  longer,  in  which  time  the  lead  acquires  a 
proper  density.  If  the  lead  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  bed 
too  long,  say  5  or  6  months,  it  is  liable  to  become  crystalline 
and  transparent,  and  will  be  of  poor  covering  power.  Care 
is  necessary  in  the  use  of  stable  litter  to  change  the  white 
carbonate  of  lead  as  it  forms,  into  a  dark  sulphide  of  lead 
from  the  sulphurous  hydrogen  evolved  during  the  process  of 
decomposition  of  the  manure. 

At  the  time  of  stacking,  the  air  in  the  beds  contains  20  parts 
oxygen;  after  two  weeks  it  contains  only  17  parts;  in  five  or 
six  weeks  7  to  15  parts,  while  the  carbonic  acid  element  will 


$00  INSPECTION   AND   UNDERWRITING 

have  increased  from  %  to  23  or  27  per  cent,  during  the 
process  of  corrosion.  (Note.  I  believe  there  is  not  enough 
oxygen  and  too  much  carbonic  acid  gas  to  support  combus- 
tion.   W.  O.  L.) 

From  30  to  40  per  cent  of  the  lead  remains  unchanged, 
which  is  separated  from  the  carbonate  by  passing  contents  of 
the  pots  through  a  series  of  rolls,  beaters  and  screens.  The 
corroded  lead  is  then  mixed  with  water  and  ground  in  burr 
stones  to  a  powder.  Generally  this  part  of  the  process  is 
omitted  (by  the  quick  process  lead  manufacturers)  because  of 
the  fine  state  of  division  necessary  to  reduce  the  metal  lead 
for  these  processes.  The  uncorroded  particles  are  so  inti- 
mately associated  with  the  carbonate  that  they  are  indiffer- 
ently eliminated  in  the  separator  and  if  run  over  the  water 
stones,  will  cover  the  face  of  the  stones  with  a  coating  of 
metallic  lead  that  soon  impairs  the  grinding  power  and  im- 
parts a  dark  color  to  the  product. 

After  grinding,  the  mixed  carbonate  and  water  is  mechan- 
ically floated  to  remove  any  coarse  particles,  then  pumped  to 
large  settling  tanks  where  it  is  double  washed  with  pure  soft 
water  and  bicarbonate  of  soda  to  remove  any  trace  of  acetic 
acid.  When  settled  pumped  to  large  copper  drying  pans  and 
water  evaporated.  Drying  requires  6  to  8  days,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  dry  rooms  being  140  to  165  deg.  F.  Then 
pulverized  and  marketed  as  dry  white  lead  or  ground  in  burr 
stones  with  linseed  oil  for  a  paste  or  paint. 

A  modification  of.  the  Dutch  process,  known  as  pulp  lead, 
consists  of  taking  the  pulp  lead  from  the  settling  tanks  and 
placing  same  in  a  tank  of  linseed  oil  and  subjecting  the 
moisture  to  a  high  speed  mechanical  stirring  for  a  number 
of  hours.  Some  of  the  water  rises  to  thie  top  and  is  drawn 
off  but  a  great  part  is  whipped  into  the  emulsion  or  forced 
into  combination  with  the  lead.     Pulp  lead  is  inferior. 

All  processes  are  detrimental  to  the  health  of  the  men 
owing  to  the  gases  evolved  during  the  process.  ''Rustless 
Coatings;  Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and  Steel." — 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc.,  publishers. 

WHITE    LEAD,    IMITATION— Made    of   lithopone,   ba- 


OWrriHW         WINDOWS  501 

rytes,  zint  oxide,  linseed  oil,  fish  oil,  corn  oil,  tallow,. water, 
whiting. 

WHITE  VITRIOL— Also  known  as  zinc  sulphate  and  is 
soluble  in  water. 

WHITEWASH— Merely  pure  lime  mixed  with  water  and 
perhaps  a  little  salt. 

WHITING — Made  from  chalk  which  is  ground  in  a  chaser, 
settled  in  vats,  cooked  in  water,  dried  and  ground.  Dry  room 
hazard. 

WIND — That  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  wind  should 
be  a  factor  in  the  underwriting  of  a  fire  insurance  risk  on  ac- 
count of  the  exposures  is  a  fact  not  apt  to  be  taken  in  con- 
sideration by  the  inexperienced.  A  building  to  windward  of 
another,  which  is  peculiarly  liable  to  take  fire,  will  be  penal- 
ized less  than  one  in  the  lee  of  the  dangerous  building. 

WIND  MILLS — The  old  style  types  are  subject  to  a  serious 
fire  hazard  due  to  the  ignition  of  the  wooden  shafts,  by  rea- 
son of  over-heated  gearing  caused  by  racing  in  a  heavy  wind. 

WINDOW  DECORATIONS  have  caused  numerous  fires, 
especially  where  gas  lights  are  used.  Highly  inflammable 
fnateifial,  such  as  tissue  paper  streamers,  cotton  wadding 
wrapped  around  strings,  should  not  be  permitted  in  win- 
dows, where  gas  is  used.  A  draft  of  air  may  blow  the  ma- 
terial into  the  gas  flame.  Such  materials  should  never  be 
wrapped  around  electric  light  globes.  Celluloid  articles  can 
be  set  on  fire  by  heat  radiated  from  lamps  and  sun's  rays. 

WINDOW  PROTECTION— In  the  Alwyn  Court  apart- 
ment house  fire,  March  4,  1910,  the  fire  burst  through  the 
windows  at  tenth  floor  and  by  means  of  thin  glass  windows 
at  court  gained  access  to  floors  above.  Being  out  of  reach 
of  fire  department  hose  streams,  it  was  hard  to  combat.  In 
fireproof  buildings,  the  intense  heat  of  burning  material  is 
projected  through  windows,  and  as  smoke  and  flames  curl 
upward  from  the  top  of  the  window  it  thus  spreads  to  upper 
floors.  Wired  glass  window  protection  is  recommended.  See 
Wired  Glass. 

WINDOWS — The  different  parts  are  sill,  horizontal  mun- 
tins,  vertical  muntins,  transom  bars,  stop  stile,  upper  rail, 
jamb,  head  and  walling-in  flange. 


.1502  INSPECTION   AND   UNDERWRITING 

WINDOW  SASH  WEIGHTS  are  made  from  old  tin  cans 
which  are  placed  in  rotary  furnaces  and  come  out  as  molten 
metal;  then  cast  into  window  sash  weights.  Foundry  hazard. 
An  unattractive  class. 

WINDOW  SHADES— Factories  are  usually  one  long 
frame  building  without  lights,  and  heated  by  steam  from  a 
boiler  in  a  detached  structure.  The  sheets  of  cotton  or  mus- 
lin are  fastened  to  large  swinging  wood  frames.  The  first 
day,  the  cloth  is  sized  with  thin  glue.  The  following  day, 
it  is  coated  with  paint  reduced  about  two-thirds  with  benzine. 
Usually  a  nuisance  to  neighborhood.    A  bad  fire  record  class. 

WINE  contains  about  8  to  25  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  No  ex- 
plosive vapors  generated  in  manufacturing  or  handling.  Man- 
ufacturing is  not  hazardous.     See  Distilleries. 

WIRE  is  covered  with  cotton  thread  by  drawing  the  wire 
over  a  roller  revolving  in  a  trough  of  glue  then  thread 
twisted  on,  dried  by  passing  over  steam  plate,  and  wound 
on  reels.    An  automatic  machine. 

WIRE  FABRIC— Fine  wire  fabric  of  copper  or  brass  is 
made  into  mesh  by  spinning,  weaving  and  carding,  similar  to 
the  process  of  making  yarn.  Other  hazards  are  plating,  an- 
nealing, tempering  and  light  metal  working. 

WIRE  LATH — A  fabric  or  mesh  of  wires  used  in  furring 
in  place  of  wood  lath. 

WIRE  SPIRAL  COLUMNS— Consist  of  a  continuous 
spiral  of  wire  held  upright  and  spaced  equidistant  by  ver- 
tical reinforcing  and  spacing  bars.  Used  as  concrete  rein- 
forcement. 

WIRE  TEMPERING— The  wire  is  drawn  through  the 
flame  of  a  coke  furnace.  As  it  emerges,  it  passes  through  a 
sand  pit  and  is  reeled  up  slowly  for  gradual  cooling.  It 
then  passes  through  a  lead  bath  and  is  reeled.  The  lead  pot 
is  coke-heated.     This  method  is  called  lead  tempering. 

WIRE  WORKS— Hazards  are  drawing,  spinning,  anneal- 
ing and  tempering,  metal  working  and  machine  shops.  Con- 
sidered good  insurance  risks! 

WIRED  GLASS— Its  value  lies  in  the  fact  that  when 
broken,  the  pieces  do  not  fall  apart.  Should  not  be  less 
than   one-fourth  inch  thick  with  wire   fabric  not  larger  than 


WOOD  503 

seven-eighths  inch  and  wire  not  smaller  than  24  B.  and  S. 
gauge.     Plate  glass  is  better  than  thin  glass.     See  Shutters. 

WIRED  GLASS  WINDOWS  (efficiency  of)— As  a  fire  re- 
tardant  wired  glass  has  two  defects:  First,  it  will  not  stand 
as  high  a  temperature  as  is  known  to  occur  in  some  fires  and 
under  some  conditions;  and  second,  it  radiates  heat  to  such 
an  extent  that  combustible  material  at  a  distance  of  six  feet 
may  be  ignited  on  the  side  away  from  the  fire,  even  when  the 
glass  remains  intact.  Fusing  point  of  glass  is  about  2200 
deg.  F.     See  Window  Protection. 

WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY  outfits  require  extreme  care 
in  wiring  and  grounding. 

WOAD — A  plant  used  in  blue  dye  manufacturing. 

WOMEN'S  NAMES— See  Names.     See  Moral  Hazard. 

WOOD  (spontaneous  combustion  of) — When  wood  is  ex- 
posed to  the  long  continued  action  of  heat,  it  undergoes 
progressive  changes  nearly  akin  to  those  which  have  taken 
place  during  the  conversion  of  vegetation  into  coal.  If  the 
wood  remains  in  contact  with  the  heated  surface  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time,  a  temperature  of  a  few  degrees 
above  the  boiling  point  of  water  is  enough  to  produce  a 
semi-carbonized  film.  The  wood  will  start  smoldering  at  a 
very  low  temperature.  The  heat  from  an  oil  lamp  or  gas 
flame  some  distance  away  is  sufficient  to  start  the  smolder- 
ing combustion.  Even  the  temperature  of  a  steam  pipe  has 
been  found  sufficient  to  cause  ignition. — Frank  R.  Fair- 
weather,  in  "Insurance  Engineering." 

WOOD  ALCOHOL— Clear,  colorless,  obtained  by  dry  dis- 
tillation of  wood.  Flash,  45  deg.  F.  Classed  as  inflammable. 
See  Alcohol. 

WOOD  DOORS  TIN  LINED— See  Fire  Doors. 

WOOD-ENCLOSED  STAIRS— See  Stairs. 

WOOD    ENGRAVERS— Light   woodworking   hazard. 

WOOD  FENCE  HAZARD— Boys  with  bonfires  oc- 
casionally ignite  fences,  which  in  turn  set  fire  to  nearby 
property. 

WOOD  FINISH  AND  TRIM  IN  FIREPROOF  BUILD- 
INGS— Ex-Chief  Croker  of  New  York  at  the  meeting  of  the 
International  Municipal   Congress,  said:   "If  I   had   my  way 


^fi^  INSPECTION  aUD   underwriting 

about  it,  I  would  not  permit  a  piece  of  wood  even  the  size 
of  a  lead  pencil  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  finish  of 
any  building  in  the  United  States  exceeding  a  ground  area 
of  25  by  50  feet,  or  three  stories  in  height.  If  there  was  still 
an  absolute  necessity  for  its  use,  if  we  could  find  nothing  to 
replace  it,  it  would  then  be  well  to  attempt  to  conceive  of 
something  better.  I  am  opposed  to  the  use  of  wood  in  any 
form  in  fireproof  buildings,  and  the  law  ought  not  to  permit 
its  use.  Wooden  floors,  wooden  window  frames,  doors  and 
casings  burn,  and  trim  and  bases  burn,  everything  that  is 
made  of  wood  burns  and  helps  the  fire  to  spread.  Eliminate 
wood — remove  the  cause,  and  you  have  precluded  the  possi- 
bility of  fires." 

WOOD  (fireproofing  of) — Lumber  is  run  into  large  steam 
cylinders  and  vacuum  is  used  to  draw  out  the  air;  then  it  is 
run  into  a  solution  of  ammonia  salts  or  alum,  then  to  dry 
kiln.     Inspect  this  class  and  write  cautiously. 

WOOD  FIBRE— Called  wood  pulp.  Shavings  boiled  in 
caustic  soda  then  chloride  of  lime. 

WOOD  FLOORS— In  fireproof  buildings  should  be  laid 
without  air  space,  i.  e.,  "cement  and  cinder  fill"  should  be 
laid  around  the  sleepers  to  the  underpart  of  the  floor  boards. 

WOOD  FLOUR— Wood  reduced  to  fine  powder.  Not- 
hazardous  and  will  not  ignite  spontaneously. 

WOOD  GAS— Obtained  by  the  distillation  of  wood.  Very 
inflammable. 

WOOD  HEEL  MANUFACTURING— Process  consists  of 
woodworking,  nailing,  trimming,  sandpapering  and  covering 
with  leather  or  celluloid.  Glue  heating.  Celluloid  is  worked 
in  acetone.     A  poor  fire  record  class. 

WOOD  NAPHTHA— See  Wood  Alcohol. 

WOOD  OIL — A  drying  oil  similar  to  linseed  oil,  derived 
from  the  nut  of  the  Chinese  tree;  sometimes,  called  Tung 
Oil.     Likely  to  cause  spontaneous  combustion. 

WOOD  PRESERVATIVES— In  preserving  wood,  the  fbl-' 
lowing  materials  are  generally  used.  Coal-tar  creosote,  hard- 
wood tar,  wood  creosote,  copperized  oil,  sodium  silicate,  bi- 
product  zinc  sulphate,  zinc  chloride,  zinc  sulphate,  cresol 
calcium,  sodium  flouride;  heavy  coal-tar  oils  mixed  with  small 


WOOL  SOS 

pertentage  of  linseed  oil,  and  a  trace  of  turpentine,  then 
chlorinated;  i.  e.,  treated  with  chlorine.  Oil  preparations  in- 
crease the  inflammability  of  the  wood.  Inspect  class.  See 
Preservation  of  Timber. 

WOOD  PULLEYS  IN  ELEVATOR  HEADS— See  Pul- 
leys.    See  Strut  Boards. 

WOOD  PULP — Commonly  called  wood  flour  when  in 
finely  divided  state. 

WOOD   SPIRITS— See   Wood   Alcohol. 

WOODWORKING— See  Cabinet  Factories. 

WOOL  (green) — Wool  which  has  been  shipped  promptly 
after  shearing,  instead  of  lying  in  storage,  as  is  usually  the 
case.  It  is  slightly  heavier  and  contains  more  moisture  than 
that  which  has  been  allowed  to  take  the  customary  course 
through   the  warehouse. 

WOOL  NOILS  are  the  short  fibres  combed  out  of  the 
long  wool. 

WOOL  PULLERIES— The  principal  hazards  are  the  dry- 
ers which  should  be  of  standard  construction;  dusters  which 
should  have  blowers,  and  the  sweat  room.  Fair  insurance 
risks. 

WOOLEN  CLIPPINGS,  if  clean,  are  considered  fairly 
good  insurance  risks. 

WOOLEN  PREPARATION  MILLS— Wool  is  "scoured" 
(washed)  to  remove  dirt,  natural  oil  and  grease  in  steam- 
heated  vats  with  water  and  soap,  then  dried.  Dryers  are 
usually  heated  by  air  blown  from  steam  coils.  The  wool  is 
placed  on  a  continuous  wire  belting  which  travels  through 
the  dry  room.     See  Worsted  Mills. 

WOOLENS — If  of  good  texture  and  of  dark  color,  they 
are  not  readily  damaged  by  fire  and  smoke.  Clean  water 
causes  little  damage  if  dried  immediately.  If  in  bolts  (piece 
goods),  considered  good  insurance. 

WOOLEYS  SOLVENT— A  cleaning  fluid,  classed  as  kero- 
sene. 

WORKMEN'S  OVERALLS— See  Lockers. 

WORK  TABLES— See  Cutting  Tables. 

WORSTED  MILLS — Raw  stock  is  green  wool.  Proc- 
esses  in   the   main   consist   of   wool   sorting,   wool   scouring, 


506  INSPECTION   AND   UNDERWRITING 

carding,  combing,  drawing,  spinning,  weaving,  wet  finishing 
and  dry  finishing. 

WORT  is  extract  from  malt,  hops  and  water. 

WROUGHT-IRON  is  not  brittle  like  cast-iron,  because 
there  is  only  ^  to  ^  lb.  of  carbon  in  every  100  lbs.  of 
wrought-iron.  It  seems  to  be  composed  of  threads  of  fibres 
of  the  metal  lying  alongside  of  each  other,  so  it  is  said  to 
have  a  fibrous  structure.  It  can  be  molded. — Hooker's  Chem- 
istry. 

WROUGHT  IRON  OR  STEEL  when  heated  have  a  ten- 
dency to  twist,  due  to  the  softening  of  the  material  and  the 
consequent  reduction  of  the  resistance  to  tension  and  com- 
pression. They  should  be  protected  when  used  as  structural 
members  of  a  building.     See  Cast  Iron.     See  Illustration. 


X 


12. 


XCIX — Special  reducer,  flashes  at  180  deg.  F.  Classed  as 
non-volatile. 

XGLOGRAPHY — The  act  or  art  of  cutting  figures  in 
wood,  in  representation  of  natural  objects. 

X-RAYS — A  delicate,  very  susceptible  piece  of  machinery 
used  by  physicians.  The  rays  produced  are  able  to  penetrate 
many  substances  that  are  impermeable  to  light.  The  rays 
are  produced  with  a  glass  vacuum  tube  and  a  battery,  from 
which  a  current  of  electricity  is  sent  through  the  tube.  The 
wires  of  the  battery  are  connected  with  two  electrodes,  one 
of  which  consists  of  a  concave  disc  of  aluminum,  and  the 
other  of  a  flat  disc  of  platinum. 

XVIII  SPECIAL— A  benzine  substitute,  flash  103  deg.  F. 
Classed  as  non-volatile. 

XYLODIN — Paper  immersed  for  a  moment  in  strong  nitric 
acid  and  then  washed  in  distilled  water.  The  paper  acquires 
the  toughness  of  parchment  and  the  combustibility  of  tinder. 

XYLOGLODINE— An   explosive  compound. 

XYLOL — Inflammable  liquid,  used  as  solvent  for  paint. 

XYLONITE — Produced  from  tissue  paper,  treated  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  nitric  acid,  and  converting  the  resulting 
nitrocellulose  into  a  pulp,  which  is  afterwards  mixed  with 
camphor  and  spirits  of  wine  worked  into  a  dough,  pressed 
into  blocks,  and  cut  into  sheets.  Very  inflammable.  See 
Celluloid. 

XYROLENE — An  imitation  ivory;  similar  to  celluloid. 
Very  hazardous. 

507 


YARN — Woolen  or  other  thread  spun  and  prepared  for 
weaving. 

YEAST  is  a  living  plant  used  for  the  purpose  of  causing 
fermentation.  The  yeast  we  use  in  baking  is  artificial,  com- 
posed of  a  dough  made  of  flour  and  starch  and  a  little  com- 
mon yeast  made  into  small  cakes  and  dried.  It  is  necessary 
to  add  water  to  start  the  fermentation:  * 

YEAST  FACTORIES— The  process  consists  of  receiving, 
elevating,  cleaning,  malting,  grinding,  conveying,  mashing, 
cooking  and  fermenting  the  grain.  The  scum  (yeast)  from 
the  tops  of  fermenting  tanks  is  removed,  mixed  with  water 
and  starch,  filtered  and  then  pressed  into  cakes.  The  hazards 
are  those  of  breweries.     See  Vinegar  Works. 

YELLOW  METAL— A  kind  of  brass. 

YELLOW  WOOD— A  hard  wood  of  the  dyers'  mulberry 
tree.  Used  as  a  yellow  dye  in  consequence  of  the  large 
amount  of  tannic  acid  it  contains. 

YUCCA  GRANCA— A  wild  grass  of  the  Southwest,  is  now 
being  used  in  paper-making. 


508 


,DVllWJi\d  j/ii.\ 


.gdnoi-iiBM 


ZACATON— See  Yucca  Granca. 

Z  BAR — An  iron  or  steel  rail,  shaped  at  end  or  cross-sec- 
tion like  the  letter  "Z,"  except  that  angles  are  45  degrees. 

ZANTE— Used  as  yellow  dye. 

ZAPON  LACQUER— Used  for  varnishing  metal.  It  is  a 
solution  of  gun  cotton. 

ZEA  FIBRE — May  be  used  in  paper  or  cordage  manu- 
facturing. 

ZERO — In  Fahrenheit's  scale,  32  degrees  below  freezing 
point  of  water.  In  Centigrade  and  Reaumur's  scales,  zero 
is   the   freezing  point   of  water. 

ZERO  WEATHER— Always  brings  numerous  claims  for 
fires  caused  by  overheating  stoves  or  furnaces.  See  Coal 
Shortage. 

ZINC — A  bluish-white  metal;  is  brittle  when  cold,  but  can 
be  rolled  into  sheets  when  heated  to  a  certain  degree.  Explo- 
sions in  chemical  risks  are  known  to  have  been  caused  where 
zinc  is  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid. 

ZINC  (resinate  of) — Not  permitted  in  listed  storage  stores 
on  account  of  the  fine  state  of  division  of  the  resin  in  the 
compound.  It  may  be  expected  to  heat  and  ignite  spon- 
taneously, if  moist;  similar  to  zinc  dust. 

ZINC  CHLORIDE— The  salt  obtained  by  heating  zinc  in 
chlorine  gas;  a  powerful  dehydrant. 

ZINC  DROSS — A  material  skimmed  from  zinc;  a  by- 
product of  galvanizing  iron. 

509 


510  INSPECTION   AND    UNDERWRITING 

ZINC  DUST — Consists  chiefly  of  finely-divided  metallic 
zinc.  Subject  to  spontaneous  combustion  when  wet.  Classed 
as  inflammable.     Not  permitted  in  stipulated  stores. 

ZINC  ETCHING,  up  to  a  certain  point,  is  quite  similar  to 
half-tone  work,  and  is  usually  employed  to  reproduce  pen 
sketches  or  designs  which  are  photographed,  as  in  half-tone 
process.  In  printing  on  the  zinc  plates  from  the  negatives, 
however,  no  screen  is  used  as  in  making  half-tones.  After 
the  sensitized  zinc  plate  has  been  printed  from  the  negative 
it  is  "rolled  up"  or  inked.  The  ink  is  then  removed  from  all 
parts  of  the  plate  except  those  affected  by  the  light.  On 
these  parts  it  remains  and  then  the  plate  is  rubbed  with 
dragon's  blood,  which  adheres  to  the  ink  portions  only.  The 
application  of  dragon's  blood  is  frequently  necessary  to  pro- 
tect the  parts  of  the  plate  which  are  not  to  be  etched.  After 
sufficient  number  of  etchings,  or  "bites"  as  they  are  called, 
the  plate  is  passed  to  the  router. 

ZINC  ETHYL  ignites  in  air  of  ordinary  temperature. 

ZINC  FLUE  DUST  is   sometimes  similar  to  zinc  dust. 

ZINC  METHYL  is  very  volatile  and  takes  fire  in  contact 
with  air. 

ZINC  OXIDES — Prepared  by  burning  zinc  in  atmosphere, 
air  or  by  heating  the  carbonate  to  redness.  To  prepare 
zinc  on  a  large  scale,  metallic  zinc  is  volatilized  in  large 
earthen  mufflers  whence  the  zinc  vapor  passes  into  a  small  re- 
ceiver where  it  comes  in  contact  with  a  current  of  air  and  is 
oxidized.  The  zinc  oxide  thus  formed  passes  immediately 
into  a  condensing  chamber,  divided  into  compartments  with 
cloths.  Then  filtered,  pressed,  dried,  ground  and  pulverized. 
Attrition  mills,  burr  mills  and  ball  mills  are  used  for  grind- 
ing.    Considerable  dust  is  generated  in  the  process. 

ZINC  SMELTERS— Hazards  similar  to  foundries.  Fur- 
naces resemble  those  used  in  glass  works. 

ZINC  SULPHATE— See  White  Vitrol.^^^^^^.^^  ^ 
ZINKENITE — A    mineral    containing   sulphur,    lead,   anti- 
mony and  copper. 


ZYMONE 


511 


ZUMIC  ACID— An  acid  discovered  in  vegetable  substances 
which  have  fermented. 

ZYMONE— The  residue  of  the  gluten  of  wheat  after  it 
has  been  treated  with  alcohol. 


Finis. 


MEMORANDA 


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